■^ 5^/:^' ^^'^r-mmt^^m 




Class ! ci 7 ^^ 
Book 5 8 



Copyright }l°_ 



13^10 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSrn 



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FARM ENGINES 

AND HOW TO RUN THEM 

THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE 



A SIMPLE, PRACTICAL HAND .BOOK, FOR EXPERTS AS WELL AS 
FOR AMATEURS, FULLY DESCRIBING EVERY PART OF AN ENGINE 
AND BOILER, GIVING FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE SAFE AND 
ECONOMICAL MANAGEMENT OF BOTH; ALSO, SEVERAL 
HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS OFTEN GIVEN IN 
EXAMINATIONS FOR AN ENGINEER'S LICENSE, AND 
CHAPTERS ON FARM ENGINE ECONOMY, WITH 
SPECIAL ATTENTION TO TRACTION AND GASO- 
LINE FARM ENGINES. AND A CHAPTER ON 



The Science of Successful! Threshing 



JAMES H. STEPHENSON 

A7id Other Expert Engineers 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWING THE DIFFERENT 
PARTS OF A BOILER AND ENGINE, AND NEARLY EVERY MAKE OF 
TRACTION ENGINE, WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DIS- 
TINCTIVE POINTS IN EACH MAKE. 




CHICAGO 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

PUBLISHERS 






<3l^ 



Copyright 1910 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 




C'CI,A:i75551 



PREFACE 



This book makes no pretensions to originality. It has 
taken the best from every source. The author beUeves 
the matter has been arranged in a more simple and effec- 
tive manner, and that more information has been crowded 
into these pages than will be found within the pages of 
any similar book. 

The professional engineer, in writing a book for young 
engineers, is likely to forget that the novice is unfamiliar 
with many terms which are like daily bread to him. The 
present writers have tried to avoid that pitfall, and to 
define each term as it naturally needs definition. More- 
over, the description of parts and the definitions of terms 
have preceded any suggestions on operation, the authors 
believing that the young engineer should become thor- 
oughly familiar with his engine and its manner of work- 
ing, before he is told what is best to do and not to do. 
If he is forced on too fast he is likely to get mixed. The 
test questions at the end of Chapter III. will show how 
perfectly the preceding pages have been mastered, and 
the student is not ready to go on till he can answer all 
these questions readily. 

The system of questions and answers has its uses and 
its limitations. The authors have tried to use that sys- 
tem wliere it would do most good, and employ the straight 
narrative discussion method where questions could not 
help and v/ould only interrupt the progress of thought. 
Little technical matter has been introduced, and that only 
for practical purposes. The authors have had traction 
engines in mind for the most part, but the directions will 
apply equally well to any kind of steam engine. 

The thanks of the publishers are due to the various 
traction engine and threshing machine manufacturers 



6 PREFACE. 

for cuts and information, and especially to the Thresher- 
men's Rez'iezv for ideas contained in its 'Tarm Engine 
Economy/' to the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co. for 
the use of copyrighte;d matter in their 'The Science of 
Successful Threshing," and to the manager of the Colum- 
bus ^Machine Co. for valuable personal information fur- 
nished the authors on gasoline engines and how to run 
them. The proof has been read and corrected by Mr. T. 
R. Butman, known in Chicago for 25 years as one of the 
leading experts on engines and boilers, especially boilers. 



THE 

YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE 



CHAPTER I. 

BUYING AN ENGINE. 

There are a great many makes of good engines on the 
market to-day, and the competition is so keen that no 
engine maker can afford to turn out a very poor engine. 
This is especially true of traction engines. The different 
styles and types all have their advantages, and are good 
in their way. For all that, one good engine may be value- 
less for you, and there are many ways in which you may 
make a great mistake in purchasing an engine. The fol- 
lowing points will help you tO' choose wisely: 

1. Consider what you want an engine for. If it is a 
stationary engine, consider the work to be done, the 
space it is to occupy, and what conveniences will save 
your time. Remember, TIME IS MONEY, and that 
means that SPACE IS ALSO MONEY. ^Choose the 
kind of engine that will be most convenient tor the posi- 
tion in which you wish to place it and the purpose or 
purposes for which you wish to use it. If buying a trac- 
tion engine, consider also the roads and an engine's pull- 
ing qualities, 

2. If you are buying* a traction engine for threshing, 
the first thing to consider is FUEL. Which will be 
cheapest for you, wood, coal or straw? Is economy of 
fuel much of an object with you — one that will justify 
you in greater care and more scientific study of your 
engine ? Other things being equal, the direct flue, firebox 

7 



8 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

locomotive boiler and simple engine will be the best, since 
they are the easiest to operate. They are not the most 
economical tmder favorable conditions, but a return flue 
boiler and a compound engine will cost you far more 
than the possible saving of fuel unless you manage them 
in a scientific way. Indeed, if not rightly managed they 
will waste more fuel than the direct flue locomotive boiler 
and the simple engine. 

3. Do not try to economize on the size of your boiler, 
and at the same time never get too large an engine. If 
a 6-horse power boiler will just do your work, an 8-horse 
power will do it better and more economically, because 
you won't be overworking it all the time. Engines should 
seldom be crowded. At the same time you never know 
when you may want a higher capacity than you have, or 
how much you may lose by not having it. Of course 
you don't want an engine and boiler that are too big, but 
you should always allow a fair margin above your an- 
ticipated requirements. 

4. Do not try to economize on appliances. You should 
have a good pump, a good injector, a good heater, an 
extra steam gauge, an extra fusible plug ready to put in, 
a flue expander and a header. You should also certainly 
have a good force pump and hose to clean the boiler, and 
the best oil and grease you can get. Never believe the 
man who tells you that something not quite the best is 
just as good. You will find it the most expensive thing 
you ever tried — if you have wit enough to find out how 
expensive it is. 

5. If 3^ou want my personal advice on the proper en- 
gine to select for various purposes, I should say by all 
means get a gasoline engine for small powers about the 
farm, such as pumping, etc. It is the quickest to start, 
by far the most economical to operate, and the simplest 
to manage. The day of the small steam engine is past 
and will never return, and ten gasoline engines of this 
kind are sold for every steam engine put out. If you 
want a traction engine for threshing, etc., stick to steam. 
Gasoline engines are not very good hill climbers because 
the application of power is not steady enough ; they are 



BUYING AN ENGINE. 9 

not very good to get out of mud holes with for the same 
reason, and as yet they are not perfected for such pur- 
poses. You might use a portable gasoline engine, how- 
ever, though the application of power is not as steady 
as with steam and the flywheels are heavy. In choosing 
a traction steam engine, the direct flue locomotive boiler 
and simple engine, though theoretically not so economical 
as the return flue boiler and compound engine, will in 
many cases prove so practically because they are so much 
simpler and there is not the chance to go wrong with 
them that there is with the others. If for any reason 
you want a very quick steamer, buy an upright. If econ- 
omy of fuel is very important and you are prepared to 
make the necessary efifort to secure it, a return flue boiler 
will be a good investment, and a really good comipound 
engine may be. Where a large plant is to be operated 
and a high power constant and steady energy is de- 
manded, stick to steam, since the gasoline engines of the 
larger size have not proved so successful, and are cer- 
tainly by no means so steady; and in such a case the 
exhaust steam can be used for heating and for various 
other purposes that will work the greatest economy. For 
such a plant choose a horizontal tubular boiler, set in 
masonry, and a compound engine (the latter if you have 
a scientific engineer). 

In general, in the traction engine, look to the conven- 
ience of arrangement of the throttle, reverse lever, steer- 
ing wheel, friction clutch, independent pump and injec- 
tor, all of which should be within easy reach of the foot- 
board, as such an arrangement will save annoyance and 
often damage when quick action is required. 

The boiler should be well set ; the firebox large, with 
large grate surface if a locomotive type of boiler is used, 
and the number of flues should be sufficient to allow good 
combustion without forced draft. A return flue boiler 
should have a large main flue, material of the required 
5-16-inch thickness, a mud drum, and four to six hand- 
holes suitably situated for cleaning the boiler. There 
should be a rather high average boiler pressure, as high 
pressure is more economical than low. For a simple en- 



lO YOUNG ENGENEERS GUIDE. 

gine, 80 pounds and for a compound 125 pounds should 
be minimum. 

A stationary engine should have a solid foundation 
built by a mason who understands the business, and 
should be in a light, dry room— never in a dark cellar 
or a damp place. 

Every farm traction engine should have a friction 
rlutch. 



CHAPTER II. 



BOILERS. 

The first boilers were made as a single cylinder of 
wrought iron set in brick work, with provision for a fire 
under one end. This was used for many years, but it pro- 
duced steam very slowly and with great waste of fuel. 

The first improvement to be made in this was a fire 
flue running the whole length of the interior of the boiler, 
with the fire in one end of the flue. This fire flue was 
entirely surrounded by water. 

Then a boiler was made with two flues that came to- 
gether at the smoke-box end. First one flue was fired 
and then the other, alternately, the clear heat of one 
burning the smoke of the other when it came into the 
common passage. ^ ^ 

The next step was to introduce conical tuoes by which 
the water could circulate through the main fire flue (Gal- 
loway boiler). 




FIG. 1. ORR & SEMBOWER'S STANDARD HORIZONTAL 

BOILER, WITH FULL-ARCH FRONT SETTING. 

II 



12 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



The object of all these improvements was to get larger 
heating surface. To make steam rapidly and econom- 
ically, the heating surface must be as large as possible, 




But there is a limit in that the boiler must not be cum- 
bersome, it must carry enough water, and have sufficient 
space for steam, 



BOlr.ERS. 



T-; 



The stationary boiler now most commonly used is cyl- 
indrical, the fire is built in a brick furnace under the 
sheet and returns through fire tubes running the length 
of the boiler. (Fig. i.) 

LOCOMOTIVE FIRE TUBE TYPE OF BOILER. 

The earliest of the modern steam boilers to come into 
use was the locomotive fire tube type, with a special fire- 
box. By reference to the illustration (Fig. 2) you will 
see that 'the boiler cylinder is perforated wath a number 
of tubes from. 2 to 4 inches in diameter running from the 
large firebox on the left, through the boiler cylinder filled 




FIG. 3. THE HUBER FIRE BOX. 



with water, to the smoke-box on the right, above which 
the smokestack rises. 

It wdll be noticed that the walls of the firebox are 
double, and that the water circulates freely all about the 
firebox as well as all about the fire tubes. The inner walls 
of the firebox are held firmly in position by stay bolts, as 
will be seen in Fig. 3, which also shows the position of 
the grate. 



YoUNc engineers' guide. 




1301 LEUS. 



\^ 



RETURN FLUE TYPE OF BOlLEk. 

The return flue type of boiler consists of a large ':en- 
tral fire flue running through the boiler cylinder to the 
smoke box at the front end, which is entirely closed. The 
smoke passes back through a number of small tubes, and 
the smokestack is directly over the fire at the rear of the 
boiler, though there is no communication between the fire 
at the rear of the boiler and it except through the main flue 
to the front and back through 
the small return flues. Fig. 
4 illustrates this type of 
boiler, though it shows but 
one return flue. The actual 
number may be seen 
sectional view in 

Fig. 5. 

The fire is built 
in one end of the 
main flue, and is 
entirely surround- 
ed by water, as 
will be seen in the 
illustration. The 
long passage for 
the flame and 
heated gases en- 
ables the water to 
absorb a maximum 
amount of the heat 
o f combustion. 
There is also an 
element of safety in 
this boiler in that the small flues will be exposed first 
should the water become low, and less damage will be done 
than if the large crown sheet of the firebox boiler is ex- 
posed, and this large crown sheet is the first thing to be 
exposed in that type of boiler. 

WATER TUBE TYPE OF BOILER. 

The special difference between the fire tube boiler and 
the water tube boiler is that in the former the fire passes 




FIG. 5. 



SECTION VIEW OF HUBER RE- 
TURN FLUB BOILER. 



1 6 



YOUN.G ENGrNEERS' GUIDE. 



through the tubes, while in the latter the water is in the 
tubes and the fire passes around them. 

In this type of boiler there is an upper cylinder (of 




FIG. 6. 



FREEMAN VERTICAL BOILER. 



more than one) filled with water; a series of small tubes 
running at an angle from the front or fire door end of the 
upper cylinder to a point below and back of the grates, 



BOILERS. 17 

where they meet in another cyHnder or pipe, which is 
connected with the other end of the upper cylinder. The 
portions of the tubes directly over the fire will be hot- 
test, and the water here will become heated and rise to 
the front end of the upper cylinder, while to fill the space 
left, colder water is drawn in from the back pipe, from 
the rear end of the upper cylinder, down to the lower ends 
of the water tubes, to pass along up through them to the 
front end again. 

This type of boiler gives great heating surface, and 
since the tubes are small they will have ample strength 
with much thinner walls. Great freedom of circulation 
is important in this type of boiler, there being no con- 
tracted cells in the passage. This is not adapted for a 
portable engine. 

UPRIGHT OR VERTICAL TYPE OF BOILER. 

In the upright type of boiler the boiler cylinder is 
placed on end, the fire is built at the lower end, which 
is a firebox surrounded by a water jacket, and the smoke 
and gases of combustion rise straight up through ver- 
tical fire flues. The amount of water carried is relatively 
small, and the steam space is also small, while the heat- 
ing surface is relatively large if the boiler is sufficiently 
tall. You can get up steam in this type of boiler quicker 
than in any other, and in case of the stationary engine, 
the space occupied is a minimum. The majority of small 
stationary engines have this type of boiler, and there is 
a traction engine with upright boiler which has been 
widely used, but it is open to the objection that the upper 
or steam ends of the tubes easily get overheated and so 
become leaky. There is also often trouble from mud and 
scale deposits in the water leg, the bottom area of which 
is very small. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN CONNECTION WITH BOILERS. 

Shell — The main cylindrical steel sheets which form 
the principal part of the boiler. 

Boiler-heads — The ends of the boiler cylinder. 



l8 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

Tube Sheets — The sheets in which the fire tubes are 
inserted at each end of the boiler. 

Fire-box — A nearly square space at one end of a 
boiler, in which the fire is placed. Properly it is sur- 
rounded on all sides by a double wall, the space between 
the two shells of these walls being filled with water. All 
flat surfaces are securely fastened by stay bolts and crown 
bars, but cylindrical surfaces are self-bracing. 

Water-leg — -The space at sides of fire-box and below 
it in which w^ater passes. 

Crown-sheet — The sheet of steel at the top of the fire- 
box, just under the water in the boiler. This crown sheet 
is exposed to severe heat, but so long as it is covered 
v/ith water, the water will conduct the heat away, and 
the metal can never become any hotter than the water in 
the boiler. If, however, it is not covered with water, but 
only by steam, it quickly becomes overheated, since the 
steam does not conduct the heat away as the water does. 
It may become so hot it will soften and sag, but the great 
danger is that the thin layer of w^ater near this over- 
heated crown sheet will be suddenly turned into a great 
volume of steam and cause an explosion. If some of the 
pressure is taken ofif, this overheated water may suddenly 
burst into steam and cause an explosion, as the safety 
valve blows off, for example (since the safety valve re- 
lieves some of the pressure). 

Smoke-box — The space at the end of the boiler oppo- 
site to that of the fire, in which the smoke may accumu- 
late before passing up the stack in the locomotive type, 
or through the small flues in the return type of boiler. 

Steam-dome — A drum or projection at the top of the 
boiler cylinder, forming the highest point w^hich the steam 
can reach. The steam is taken from the boiler through 
piping leading from the top of this dome, since at this 
point it is least likely to be mixed with water, either 
through foaming or shaking up of the boiler. Even un- 
der normal conditions the steam at the top of the dome is 
drier than anywhere .else. 

Mud-drum' — A cylindrical-shaped receptacle at the bot- 
tom of the boiler similar to the steam-dome at the top, 



BOILERS. 19 

but not. so deep. Impurities in the water accumulate 
here, and it is of great value on a return flue boiler. In 
a locomotive boiler the mud accumulates in the water leg, 
below the firebox. 

Man-holes — x\re large openings into the interior of a 
boiler, through which a man may pass to clean out the 
inside. 

Hand-holes — Are smaller holes at various points in the 
boiler into which the nozzle of a hose may be introduced 
for cleaning out the interior. All these openings must be 
securely covered with steam-tight plates, called man-hole 
and hand-hole plates. 

A boiler jacket — A non-conducting covering of wood, 
plaster, hair, rags, felt, paper, asbestos or the like, which 
prevents the boiler shell from cooling too rapidly through 
radiation of heat from the steel. These materials are 
usually held in place agamst the boiler by sheet iron. An 
intervening air-space between the jacket and the boiler 
shell will add to the efficiency of the jacket. 

A steam-jacket — A space around an engine cylinder or 
the like which may be filled with live steam so as to keep 
the interior from cooling rapidly. 

Ash-pit — The space directly under the grates, where 
the ashes accumulate. 

Dead-plates — Solid sheets of steel on which the fire 
lies the ^ame as on the grates, but with no openings 
through to the ash-pit. Dead-plates are sometimes used 
to prevent cold air passing through the fire into th^ flues, 
and are common on straw-burning boilers. They should 
seldom if ever be used on coal or wood firing boilers. 

Grate Surface — The whole space occupied by the grate- 
bars, usually measured in square feet. 

Forced Draft — A draft produced by any means other 
than the natural tendency of the heated gases of com- 
bustion to rise. For example, a draft caused by letting 
steam escape into the stack. 

Heating Surface — The entire surface of the boiler ex^ 
posed to the heat of the fire, or the area of steel or iron 
sheeting or tubing, on one side of which is water and 
on the other heated air or gases. 



20 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



Steam-Space — ^The cubical contents of the space which 
may be occupied by steam above the water. 

Water'Spacc— The cubical contents of the space occu- 
pied by water below the steam. 

Diaphragm-plate — A perforated plate used in the 
domes of locomotive boilers to prevent water dashing" into 
the steam supply pipe. A dry-pipe is a pipe with small 
perforations, used for taking steam from the steam-space, 
instead of from a dome with diaphragm-plate. 

THE ATTACHMENTS OF A BOILER. "^ 

Before proceeding to a consideration of the care and 
management of a boiler, let us briefly indicate the chief 
working attachments of a boiler. Unless the nature and 
uses of these attachments are fullv understood, it will be 
impossible to handle the boiler in a thoroughly safe and 
scientific fashion, though some engineers 
do handle boilers without knowing all 
about these attachments. Their ignor- 
ance in many cases costs them their lives 
and the lives of others. 

The first duty of the engineer is to see 
that the boiler is filled wath w^ater. This 
he usually does by looking at the glass 
water-gauge. 

THE WATER GAUGE AND COCKS. 

There is a cock at each end of the glass 
tube. When these cocks are open the 
water will pass through the lower into 
the glass tube, while steam comes 
through the other. The level of the wa- 
ter in the gauge will then be the same 
as the level of the water in the boiler, 
and the water should never fall out of 

sight below the lower end of the glass, nor rise above the 

upper end. 

^Unless otherwise indicated, cuts of fittings show those manu- 
factured by the Lunkenheimer Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 




TWO-ROD WATER 
GAUGE. 



BOILERS. 



21 



Below the lower gauge cock there is another cock used 
for draining the gauge and blowing it off when there is 
a pressure of steam on. By occasionally opening this 
cock, allowing the heated water or steam to blow through 
it, the engineer may always be sure that the passages 
into the water gauge are not stopped up by any means. 
By closing the upper cock and opening the lower, the 
passage into the lower may be cleared by blowing off the 
drain cock ; by closing the lower gauge cock and opening 
the upper the passage from the steam space may be 
cleared and tested in the same way when the drain cock 
is opened. If the glass breaks, both upper and lower 
gauge cocks should be closed instantly. 

In addition to the glass water 
gauge, there are the try-cocks for 
ascertaining the level of the water 
in the boiler. There should be two 
to four of these. They open directly 
ut of the boiler sheet, and by open- 
ing them in turn it is possible to tell 
approximately where the water 
stands. There should be one cock 
near the level of the crown sheet, or slightly above it, an- 
other about the level of the lower gauge cock, another 
about the middle of the gauge, another about the level of 
the upper gauge, and still another, perhaps, a little higher. 
But one above and one below the water line will be suffi- 
cient. If water stands above the level of the cock, it 
will blow off white mist when opened ; if the cock opens 
from steam-space, it will blow off blue steam when 
opened. 

The try-cocks should be 
opened from time to time 
in order to be sure the wa- 
ter stands at the proper 
level in the boiler, for vari- 
ous things may interfere 
with the working of the 
glass gauge. Try-cocks are often called gauge cocks. 




GAUGE OR TRY COCK. 




TRT COCK. 



22 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 




PKESSURE GAUGE. 



THE STEAM GAUGE. 

The steam gauge is a delicate instrument arranged so 

as to indicate by a pointer the pounds of pressure which 

the steam is exerting within the boiler. It is extremely 

important, and a defect in it may 

cause much damage. 

The steam gauge was invented 

in 1849 by Eugene Bourdon, of 

France. He discovered that a flat 

tube bent in a simple curve, held 

fast at one end, would expand and 

contract if made of 'p'<;per spring 

material, through the pressure of 

the water within the tube. The 

free end operates a clock-work that 

moves the pointer. 

It is important that the steam gauge be attached to 

the boiler by a siphon, or with a knot in the tube, so that 

the steam may operate on 
water contained in the tube, 
and the water cannot be- 
come displaced by steam, 
since steam might interfere 
with the correct working 
of the gauge by expanding 

the gauge tube through its excessive heat. 

Steam gauges frequently get out of order, and should 

be tested occasionally. This may conveniently be done 

by attaching them to a boiler which has a correct gauge 

already on it. If both register alike, it is probable that 

both aie accurate. 

There are also self-testing steam gauges. With all 

pressure off, the pointer will return to O. Then a series 

of weights are arranged which may 

be hung on the gauge and cause 

the pointer to indicate correspond- 
ing numbers. The chief source of 

variation is in the loosening of the 

indicator needle. This shows itself 

usually when the pressure is off and 

the pointer does not return exactly to zero. 




STEAM GAUGE SIPHOX. 




FRONT CYLINDER COCK. 



BOILERS. 



SAFETY VALVE. 

The safety valve is a valve held in place by a weighted 
lever '^ or by a spiral spring (on traction engines) or some 

similar device, and is ad- 
justable by a screw or the 
like so that it can be set 
to blow off at a given pres- 
sure of steam, usually the 
rated pressure of the boil- 
er, which on traction en- 




SECTIONAL VIEW OP KUNKLE 
POP VALVE. 




SAFETY YALYE. 



gines is from no to 130 pounds. The valve is supplied 
with a handle by which it can be opened, and it should 
be opened occasionally to make sure it is working all 
right. When it blows off the steam gauge should be 
noted to see that it agrees with the pressure for which 
the safety valve was set. If they do not agree, something 
is wrongj either the safety valve does not work freely, 
or the steam gauge does not register accurately. 

The cut shows the Kunkle safety valve. To set it, un- 
screw the jam nut and apply the key to the pressure 
screw. For more pressure, screw down; for less, un- 
screw. After having the desired pressure, screw the jam 

'''This kind of safety valve is now being entirely discarded as 
miicli more dangerous than the spring or pop valve. 



24 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE 



nut down tight on the pressure screw. To regulate the 
opening and closing of the valve, take the pointed end of 
a file and apply it to the teeth of the regulator. If valve 
closes w^th too much boiler pressure, move the regulator 
to the left. If with too little, move the regulator to the 
right. 

This can be done when the 

valve is at the point of blowing 

off. 




PHANTOM VIEW OF MARSH INDEPENDENT STEAM PUMP. 



Other types of valves are managed in a similar way, 
and exact directions will always be furnished by the man- 
ufacturers. 

FILLING THE BOILER WITH WATER. 

There are three ways in which a boiler is commonly 
Irlled with water. 

First, before starting a boiler it must be filled with 
water by hand, or with a hand force-pump. There is 
usually a filler plug, \vhich must be taken out, and a fun- 
nel can be attached in its place. Open one of the gauge 
cocks to let out the air as the water goes in. 

When the boiler has a sufficient amount of water, as 
may be seen by the glass water gauge, replace the filler 



BOILERS. 



^5 




plug. After steam is up the boiler should be supplied 
with water by a pump or injector. 

THE BOILER PUMP. 

There are two kinds of pumps commonly used on 
traction engines, the Independent pump, and the Cross- 
head pump. 

The Independent pump is virtually an independent 
engine wath pump attached. There are two cylinders, 
one receiving steam and conveying force to the piston; 
the other a water cylinder, in which a plunger works, 
drawing the water into itself by suction and forcing it 
out through the connec- 
tion pipe into the boiler by 
force of steam pressure in 
the steam cylinder. 

It is to be noted that all 
suction pumps receive their 
water by reason of the 
pressure of the atmosphere 
on the surface of the v\^ater 
in the supply tank or wdl. This atmospheric pressure 
is about 15 pounds to the square inch, and is sufficient to 
support a column of water 28 to 33 feet high, 33 feet 
being the height of a column of water which the atmos- 
phere will support theoretically at about sea level. At 
greater altitudes the pressure of the atmosphere de- 
creases. Pumps do not work very well when drawing 
water from a depth over 20 or 22 feet. 

Water can be forced to almost any height by pressure 
of steam on the plunger, and it is taken from deep wells 

by deep well pumps, which 
suck the water 20 to 25 
feet, and force it the rest 
of the way by pressure on 
a plunger. 

The amount of water 
pumped is regulated by a 
cock or globe valve in the 
suction pipe. 



STRAIGHT GLOBE VALVE. 




ANGLE GLOBE VALVE. 



26 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 




VALVE WITH INTERNAL 
SCREW. 



A Cross-head boiler pump is a pump attached to the 
cross-head of an engine. The force of the engine piston 
is transmitted to the plunger of the 
pump. 

The pump portion works exactly 
the same, whether of the independ- 
ent or cross-head kind. 

The cut represents ai\ independ- 
ent pump that uses the exhaust 
steam to heat the water as it is 
pumped (Marsh pump). 

Every boiler feed-pump must 
have at least two check valves. 

A check valve is a small swing- 
ing gate valve (usually) contained 
in a pipe, and so arranged that 
when water is flowing in one di- 
rection the valve will automatically 
open to let the water pass, while 
if water should be forced in the 
other direction, the valve will automatically close tight 
and prevent the water from passing. 

There is one check valve in the supply pipe which con- 
ducts the water from the tank or well to the pump cylin- 
der. When the plunger is drawn 
back or raised, a vacuum is created in 
the pump cylinder and the outside at- 
mospheric pressure forces water 
through the supply pipe into the cyl- 
inder, and the check valve opens to 
let it pass. When the plunger returns, 
the check valve closes, and the water 
is forced into the feed-pipe to the ^^JS:^^''^tlZ^^Zr?Z 

, .^ •*■••■ SWING CilLCiL vAL.\iii. 

boiler. 

There are usually two check valves between the pump 
cvlinder and the boiler, both swinging away from the 
pump or toward the boiler. In order that the water may 
flow steadily into the boiler there is an air chamber, which 
may be partly filled with water at each stroke of the 




BOILERS. 



27 



plunger. As the water comes in^ the air must be com- 
pressed, and as it expands it forces the water through the 
feed pipe into the boiler in a steady stream. There is one 




SECTIONAL VIEW OP CASE HEATER. 

check valve between the pump cylinder and the air cham- 
ber, to prevent the water from coming back into the cyl- 
inder, and another between the air chamber and the 
boiler, to prevent the steam pressure forcins: itself or the 
STEAM water from the boiler or water 

heater back into the air chamber. 



STEAM 





SECTIONAL VIEW OF PENBERTHY 
INJECTOR. 



U. S. AUTOMATIC INJECTOR. 

(American Injector Co.) 



All three of these check valves must w'ork easily and 
fit tight if the pump is to be serviceable. They usually 
close with rubber facings which in time will get worn, 



28 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



and dirt is liable to work into the hinge and otherwise 
prevent tight and easy closing. They can always te 
opened for inspection, and new ones can be put in when 
the old are too much worn. 

Only cold, water can be pumped successfully, as steam 
from hot water will expand, and so prevent a vacuum 
being formed. Thus no suction will take place to draw 
the water from the supply source. 

There should always be a globe valve or cock in the 
feed pipe near the boiler to make it possible to cut out the 

check valves when the 
boiler is under pressure. 
It is never to he closed 
except w^hen required 
for this purpose. 

Before passing into 
the boiler the water 
from the pump goes 
through the heater. This 
is a small cylinder, with 
a coil of pipe inside. 
The feed pipe from the 
pump is connected with 
one end of this inner 
coil of pipe, wliile the 
other end of the coil 
leads into the boiler it- 
self. The exhaust 
steam from the engine 
cylinder is admitted into 
the cylinder and passes 
around the coil of pipe, afterwards coming out of the 
smoke stack to help increase the draft. As the feed 
water passes through this heater it becomes heated nearly 
to boiling before -it enters the boiler, and has no 
tendency to cool the boiler off. Heating the feed water 
results in an economy of about lo per cent. 

The Injector is another means of forcing water from 
a supply tank or well into the boiler, and at the same time 
heating it, by use of steam from the boiler. It is a neces- 




AUTOMATIC INJECTOE. 



BOILERS. 



29 



sity when a cross-head pump is used, since such a pump 
will not work when the engine is shut down. It is use- 
ful in any case to heat the water before it goes into the 
boiler when the engine is not working and there is no 
exhaust steam for the heatef. 

There are various types of injectors, but they all work 
on practically the same principle. The steam from the 
boiler is led through a tapering nozzle to- a small cham- 
ber into which there is an opening from a water supply 
pipe. This steam nozzle throws out its spray with great 
force and creates a partial vacuum in the chamber, caus- 
ing the water to flow in. As the pressure of the steam 
has been reduced when it passes into the injector, it can- 
not, of course, force its way back into the boiler at first, 
and finds an outlet at the overflow. When the water 
comes in, however, the steam jet strikes the water and is 
condensed by it. At the same time it carries the water 
and the condensed steam along toward the boiler with 
such force that the back ^»ressure of the boiler is over- 
come and a stream of heated water is passed into it. In 
order that the injector may work, its parts must be nicely 
adjusted^ and with varying steam pressures it takes some 
ingenuity to get it started. UsuaUv the fbll steam pres- 
sure is turned on and the cock admitting the water sup- 
ply is opened a varying amount according to the pressure. 

First the valve between the check 
valve and the boiler should be opened, 
so that the feed water may enter f 1 ee - 
ly; then open wide the valve next 



any other 
supply pipe 
open the 
water ap 



the steam dome, and 

valve between the steam 

and the injector; lastly 

water supply valve. If 

pears at the overflow, close the supply 

valve and open it again, giving it just 

the proper amount of turn. The in- 

jector is regulated by the amount of 

v/ater admitted. 

In setting up an injector of dv,v t}pe, 
the following rules should be ;-. served: 




PLAIN WHISTLE. 



30 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

All connecting pipes as straight and short as possible. 

The internal diameter of all connecting pipes should be 
the same or greater than the diameter of the hole in the 
corresponding part of the injector. 

When there is dirt or particles of wood or other ma- 
jterial in the source of water supply, the end of the 
^water supply pipe should be provided w^ith a strainer. 
Indeed, invariably a strainer should be used. The holes 
in this strainer must be as small as the smallest opening 
in the delivery tube, and the total area of the openings 
in the strainer must be much greater than the area of the 
water supply (cross-section). 

The steam should be taken from the highest part of 
the dome, to- avoid carrying any water from the boiler 
over with it. Wet steam cuts and grooves the steam 
nozzle. The steam should not be taken from the pipe 
leading to the engine unless the pipe is quite large. 

Before using new injectors, after they are fitted to 
the boiler it is advisable to disconnect them and cltan 
them out well by letting steam blow^ through them or 
forcing water through. This will prevent lead or loose 
scale getting into the injector when in use. 

Set the injector as low as possible, as it works best 
with smallest possible lift. 

Ejectors and jet pumps are used for lifting and forc- 
ing water by steam pressure, and are employed in fill- 
ing tanks, etc. 

BLAST AND BLOW^-OFF DEVICES. 

In traction engines there is small pipe with a valve, 
leading into the smoke stack from the boiler. When the 
valve is opened, the steam allowed to blow^ off into the 
smoke stack w411 create a vacuum and so increase the 
draft. Blast or blow pipes are used only in starting the 
fire, and are of little value before the steam pressure 
reaches 15 pounds or so. 

The exhaust nozzle from the engine cylinder also leads 
into the smoke stack, and when the engine is running the 
exhaust steam is sufficient to keep up the draft without 
using the blower. 



BOILERS. 



31 




DIAMOND 
SPAKK AEEESTER. 



Blo'W-off cocks are used for blowing 
sediment out of the bottom of a boiler, 
or blowing- scum off the top of the 
water to prevent foaming. A boiler 
should never be blown out at high 
pressure, as there is great danger of 
injuring it. Better let the boiler cool 
Dff somewhat before blowing off. 

SPARK ARRESTER. 

Traction engines are supplied as a 
usual thing with spark arresters if 
they burn wood or straw. Coal sparks 
are heavy and have little life, and with 
some engines no spark arrester is 
needed. But there is great danger of 
setting a fire if an engine is run with wood or straw v/ith- 
out the spark arrester. 

Spark arresters are of different types. The most usual 
form is a large screen dome placed over the top of the 
stack. This screen must be kept w^ell cleaned by brushing, 
or the draft of the engine w^ill be impaired by it. 

In another form of spark arrester, the smoke is made 
to pass through water, which effectually kills every pos- 
sible spark. 

The Diamond Spark Arrester does not interfere with 
the draft and is so consltructed that all sparks are carried 
by a counter current through a tube into a pail where 
water is kept. The inverted cone, as shown in cut, is 
made of steel wire cloth, which permits smoke and gas 
to escape, but no sparks. There is no possible chance to 
set fire to anything by sparks. It is adapted to any steam 
engine that exhausts into the smoke stack. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 

The engine is the part of a power plant which converts 
steam pressure into power in such form that it can do 
work.^ Properly speaking, the engine has nothing to 
do with generating steam. That is done exclusively in 
ihe boiler, which has already been described. 

The steam engine was invented by James Watt, in 




VIEW OF SIMPLE CYLINDER. 
(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.) 

England, betw^een 1765 and 1790, and he understood all 
the essential parts of the engine as now built. It w^as 
improved, however, by Seguin, Ericsson, Stephenson, 
Fulton, and many others. 
Let ivs first consider: 



the: simple engine. 



33 



THE STEAM CYLINDER, ITS PARTS AND CONNECTIONS. 

The cylinder proper is constructed of a single piece 
of cast iron bored out smooth. 

The cylinder heads are the flat discs or caps bolted to 
the ends of the cylinder itself. Sometimes one cylinder 
head is cast in the same piece with the engine frame. 

The piston is a circular disc working back and forth 
in the cylinder. It is usually a hollow casting, and to 
make it fit the C3^1inder steam tight, it is supplied on its 
circumference w^ith piston rings. These are made of 
slightly larger diameter than the piston, and serve as 
springs against the sides of the cylinder. The follower 




CONNECTING ROD AND CROSS-HEAD. 
(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.) 

plate and bolts cover the piston rings on the piston head 
and hold them in place. 

The piston rod is of wrought iron or steel, and is fitted 
firmly and rigidly into the piston at one end. It runs 
from the piston through one head of the cylinder, passing 
through a steam-tight "stufiing box.'' One end of the 
piston rod is attached tO' the cross-head. 

The cross-head works between guides, and has shoes 
above and below. . It is practically a joint, necessary in 
converting straight back and forth motion into rotary. 
The cross-head itself works straight back and forth, just 
as the piston does, which is fastened firmly to one end. 
At the other end is attached the connecting rod, which 



34 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



works on a bearing in the cross-head, called the zirist pin, 
or cross-head pin. 

The connecting rod is .rrought iron or steel, working 
at one end on the bearing known as the wrist pin, and oil 
the other on a bearing called the crank pin. 

The crank is a short lever which transmits the power 
from the connecting rod to the crank shaft It may also 
be a disc, called the crank disc. 

Let us now return to the steam cylinder itself. 

The steam leaves the boiler through a pipe leading 
from, the top of the steam dome, and is let on or cut off 
by the th/oltle valve, which is usually opened and closed 
by some sort of lever handle. It passes on to the 




CROSS-HEAD. 
(J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.) 

Steam-chest, usually a part of the same casting as the 
cylinder. It has a cover called the steam-chest cover, 
which is securely bolted in place. 

The steam valve, usually spoken of simply as the valve, 
serves to admit the steam alternately to each end of the 
cylinder in such a manner that it works the piston back 
and forth. 

There are many kinds of valves, the simplest (shown 
in the diagram) being the D- valve. It slides back and 
forth on the bottom of the steam-chest, which is called the 
valve seat, and alternately opens and closes the two 
steam ports, which are long, narrow passages through 
which the steam enters the cylinder, first through one 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 35 

port to one end, then through the other port to the other 
end. The exhaust steam also passes out at these same 
ports. 

The exhaust chamber in the type of engine now under 
consideration is an opening on the lower side of the 
valve, and is always open into the exhaust port, which 
connects with the exhaust pipe, which finally discharges 
itself through the exhaust nozzle into the smoke stack 
of a locomotive or traction engine, or in other types of 
engines, into the condenser. 

The valve is worked by the valve stem, which works 
through the valve stem stuffing' box. 

Of course the piston does not work quite the full length 
of the cylinder, else it would ;iound against the cylinder 
heads. 

The clearance is the distance between the cylinder head 
at either end and the piston when the piston has reached 
the limit of its stroke in that direction. 

In most engines the valve is so set that it opens a trifle 
just before the piston reaches the limit of its movement 
in either direction, thus letting some steam in before the 
piston is ready tO' move back. This opening, which usu- 
ally amounts to 1-32 to 3-16 of an inch, is called the 
lead. The steam thus let in before the piston reaches the 
limit of its stroke forms cushion, and helps the piston to 
reverse its motion without any jar, in an easy and silent 
manner. Of course the cushion must be as slight as pos- 
sible and serve its purpose, else it will tend to stop the 
engine, and result in loss of energy. Some engines have 
no lead. 

Setting a valve is adjusting it on its seat so that the 
lead will be equal at both ends and sufficient for the needs 
of the engine. By shortening the movement of the valve 
back and forth, the lead can be increased or diminished. 
This is usually effected by changing the eccentric or 
valve gear. 

The lap of a slide valve is the distance it extends over 
the edges of the ports when it is at the middle of its 
travel. 

Lap on the steam side is called outside lap ; lap on the 
exhaust side is called inside lap. The object of lap ia 



^6 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

to secure the benefit of working- steam expansively. Hav- 
ing lap, the valve closes one steam port before the other 
is opened, and before the piston has reached the end of 
its stro-ke; also of course before the exhaust i3 opened. 
Thus for a short time the steam that has been let into the 
cylinder to drive the piston is shut up with neither iniet 
nor outlet, and it drives the piston by its own expansive 
force. When it passes out at the exhaust it has a con- 
siderably reduced pressure, and less of its force is wasted. 
Let us now consider the 

VALVE GEAR. 

The mechanism by w^hich the valve is opened and 
closed is somewhat complicated, as various things are ac- 
complished by it besides simply opening and closing the 
valve. If an engine has a reverse lever, it works through 
the valve gear; and the governor which regulates the 
speed of the engine may also operate through the valve 
gear. It is therefore very important. 

The simplest valve gear depends for its action on a 
fixed eccentric. 

An eccentric consists of a central disc called the 
sheave, keyed to the main shaft at a point to one side of 
its true center, and a grooved ring or strap surrounding 
it and sliding loosely around it. The strap is usually 
made of brass or some anti-friction metal. It is in two 
parts, which are bolted together so that they can be tight- 
ened up as the strap wears. 

The eccentric rod is either bolted to the strap or forms 
a single piece wnth it, and this rod transmits its motion to 
the valve. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the eccentric is nothing 
more than a sort of disc crank, which, how^ever, does not 
need to be attached to the end of a shaft in the manner 
of an ordinarv^ crank. 

The distance between the center of the eccentric sheave 
and the center of the shaft is called the throzv of the ec- 
centric or the eccentricity. 

The eccentric usually conveys its force through a con- 
necting rod to the valve stem, which moves the valve. 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 37 

The first modification of the simple eccentric valve 
gear is 

THE REVERSING GEAR. 

It is very desirable to control the movement of the 
steam valve, so that if desired the engine may be run in 
the opposite direction ; or the steam force may be brought 
to bear to stop the engine quickly; or the travel of the 
valve regulated so that it will let into the cylinder only 
as much steam as is -needed to run the engine when the 
load is light and the -team pressure in the boiler high. 

There is a great variety of reversing gears; but we 
will consider one of the commonest and simplest first. 



HUBER SINGLE EOCENTRIC REVERSE. 

If the eccentric sheave could be slipped around on the 
shaft to a position opposite to that in which it was keyed 
to shaft in its ordinary motion, the motion of the valve 
would be reversed, and it would let steam in front of the 
advancing end of the piston, which would check its 
movement, and start it in the opposite direction. 

The* link gear, invented by Stephenson^ accomplishes 
this in a natural and easy manner. There are two eccen- 
trics placed ju«t opposite to each other on the crank 
shaft, their connecting reds terminating in what is called 
a link, through which motion is communicated to the valve 
stem. The link is a curved slide, one eccentric being con- 
nected to one end, the other eccentric to the other end, 



38 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



and the Unk-hlock, through which motion is conveyed to 
the valve, sHdes freely from one end to the other. Lower 
the link so that the block is opposite the end of the first 
rod, and the valve will be moved by the corresponding 
eccentric ; raise the 
link, so that the 
block is opposite 
the end of the oth- 
er rod, and the 
valve will be 
moved by the oth- 
er eccentric. In the 
middle there would 




be a dead center, and if the block stopped here, the 
valve would not move at all. At any intermediate point, 
the travel of the valve would be correspondingly short- 
enedc 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 



39 



Such is he theoretical effect of a perfect Unk; but the 
dead cente ; is not absolute, and the motion of the link is 
varied by the point at which the rod is attached which 
lifts and lowers it, and also by the length of this rod. 
In full gear the block 
is not allowed to come 
quite to the end of the 
link, and this surplus 
distance is called the 
clearance. The radius 
of a link is the dis- 
tance from the center 
of the driving shaft 
to the center of the 
link, and the curve of 
the link is that of a 
circle with that radius. 
The length of the 
radius may vary con- ^ 
siderably, but the § 
point of suspension is -^ 
important. If a link § 
is suspended by its S 
center, it will cer- g 
tainly cut off steam | 
sooner in the front S 
stroke than in the ^ 
back. Usually it is > 
suspended from that ^ 
point which is most c 
used in running the ^ 
engine. ^ 

The Woolf revers- 
ing gear employs but 
one eccentric, to the 
strap of which is cast 
an arm having a block 
pivoted at its end. 
This block slides in a 
pivoted guide, the an- 
gle of which is con- 




40 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



trolled by the reverse lever. To the eccentric arm is at- 
tached the eccentric rod, which transmits the motion to 
the valve rod through a rocker arm on simple engines 
and through a slide, as shown in cut, on compound cw- 
gines. 

The Meyer valve gear does not actually reverse an 
engirte, but controls the admission of steam by means 
of an additional valve riding on the back of the main 
valve and controlling the cut-off. The main valve is like 
an ordinary D-valve, except that the steam is not ad- 
mitted around the ends, but through ports running 
through the valve^ these ports being partially opened or 

closed by the motion of 
the riding valve, which is 
controlled by a separate 
eccentric. If this riding 
valve is connected with a 
governor, it will regulate 
the speed of an engine ; 
and by the addition of a 
link the gear may be 
made reversiblCo The 
chief objection to it is 
the excessive friction 
of the valves on their 
seats. 

GOVERNORS. 



A governor is a mech- 

SECTIONAL VIEW SHOWING VALVE ^^{^^ Uy which thc SUO- 
OF WATERS GOVERNOR. dlllblll Uy WllH^ll HIC SUp 

ply of steam to the cylin- 
der is regulated by revolving balls, or the like, which 
runs faster or slower as the speed of the engine increases 
or diminishes. Thus the speed of an engine is regulated 
to varying loads and conditions. 

The simplest type of governor, and the one comrnonly 
used on traction engines, is that which is only a modifica- 
tion of the one invented by Watt. Two balls revolve 
around a spindle in such a way as to rise when the speed 
of the engine is high, and fall when it is low, and in rising 




THE SIMPLE ENGliNE. 



4t 



and falling they open and close a valve similar to the 
throttle valve. The amount that the governor valve is 
opened or closed by the rise and fall of the governor 
balls is usually regulated by a thumb screw at the top or 
side, or by what is called a handle nut, which is usually 
held firm by a check nut directly over it, which should be 
screwed firm against the handle nut. 
Motion is conveyed to the governor 
balls by a belt and a band wheel work- 
ing on a mechanism of metred cogs. 

There is considerable friction about 
a governor of this type and much en- 
ergy is wasted in keeping it going. 
The valve stem or spindle passes 
through a steam-tight stuffing box, 
where it is liable to stick if the pack- 
ing is too tight; and if this stuffing 
box leaks steam, there will be immedi- 
ate loss of power. 

Such a governor as has just been 
described is called a throttle valve 
governor. On high grade engines the 
difficulties inherent in this type of 
governor are overcome by making the 
governor control, not a valve in the '^'^^^^'i!?,,^?,^'^^''^^^ 
steam supply pipe, but the admission 
of steam to the steam cylinder through the steam valve 
and its gear. Such engines are described as having an 
''automatic cut-off.'' Sometimes the governor is at- 
tached to the link, sometimes to a separate valve, as in 
the Meyer gear already described. Usually the governor 
is attached to the fly-wheel, and consequently governors 
of this type are called fly-wheel governors. An automatic 
cut-off governor is from 15 per cent to 20 per cent more 
effective than a throttle valve governor. 

CRANK, SHAFT AND JOURNALS. 

We have already seen how the piston conveys its power 
through the piston rod, the cross-head, and the con- 
necting rod, to the crank pin and crank, and hence to the 
shaft. 




42 



YOUNG EXGIXEERS GUIDE. 



The key, gib, and strap are the effective means by 
which the connecting rod is attached, first to the wrist pin 
in the cross-head, and secondly to the crank pin on the 
crank. 

The strap is usually made of two or three pieces of 
wrought iron or steel bolted together so as to hold the 
brasses, which are in two parts and loosely surround the 
pin. The brasses do not quite meet, and as they wear 
may be tightened up. This is eft'ected by the gib, back 
of which is the key, which is commonly a wedge which 
may be driven in, or a screw, which presses on the back 
of the gib, which in turn forces together the brasses ; and 




CONNECTING ROD AND BOXES. 

(A. W. Stevens Co.) 

thus the length of the piston gear is kept uniform in 
spite of the wear, becoming neither shorter nor longer. 
When the brasses are so worn that they have been forced 
together, they must be taken out and filed equally on 
all four of the meeting ends, and shims, or thin pieces of 
sheet iron or the like placed back of them to equalize the 
wear, and prevent the piston gear from being shortened 
or otherwise altered. 

The era)ik is a simple lever attached to the shaft by 
which the shaft is rotated. There are two types of crank 
in common use, the side crank, which works by what is 
virtuallv a bend in the shaft. There is also what is 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 43 

called the disc crank, a variation of the side crank, In 
which the power is appHed to the circumference of a disc 
instead of to the end of a lever arm. 

The boss of a crank is that part which surrounds the 
shaft and butts against the main bearing, and is usually 
about twice the diameter of the crank shaft journal. The 
zceb of the crank is the portion between the shaft and the 
pin. 

To secure noiseless running, the crank pin should be 
turned with great exactness, and should be set exactly 
parallel with the direction of the shaft. When the 
pressure on the pin or any bearing is over 800 pounds per 
square inch, oil is no longer able to lubricate it properly. 
Hence the bearing surface should always be large enough 
to prevent a greater pressure than 800 pounds to the 
square inch. To secure the proper proportions the crank 
pin should have a diameter of one-fourth the bore of the 
cylinder, and its length should be one-third that of the 
cylinder. 

The shaft is made of wrought iron or steel, and must 
not only be able to withstand the twisting motion of the 
crank, but the bending force of the engine stroke. To 
prevent bending, the shaft should have a bearing as near 
the crank as possible. 

The journals are those portions of the shaft which work 
in bearings. The main bearings are also called pedestals, 
pillozu blocks, and journal boxes. They usually consist 
of boxes made of brass or some other anti-friction mate- 
rial carried in iron pedestals. The pillow blocks are 
usually adjustable. 

THE FLY-WHEEL. 

This is a heavy wheel attached to the shaft. Its object 
is to regulate the variable action of the piston, and to 
make the motion uniform even when the load is variable. 
By its inertia it stores energy, which would keep the en- 
gine running for some time after the piston ceased to 
apply any force or power. 

LUBRICATORS. 

All bearings must be steadily and effectively lubricated, 
in order to remove friction as far as possible, or the work- 



44 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



ing power of the engine will be greatly reduced. Be- 
sides, w^ithout complete and effective lubrication, the bear- 
ings will ''cut,'' or wear in irregular grooves, etc., quick- 
ly ruining the engine. 

Bearings are lubricated through automatic lubricator 
cups, w^hich hold oil or grease and discharge it uniformly 
upon the bearing through a suitable hole. 

A sight feed ordinary cup permits the drops of oil to 
be seen as they pass downward through a glass tube, and 



DESCRIPTION. 

C 1 — Body or Oil Reservoir. 
C 8— Filler Plug. 
C 4 — Water Valve. 
C 5 — Plug for inserting Sight- 
Feed Glass. 
C 6 — Sight-Feed Drain Stem. 
C 7 — Regulating Valve. 
C 8 — Drain Valve. 
C 9 — Steam Valve. 
C 10 — Union Nut. 
C 11 — Tail Piece. 

H— Sight-Feed Glass. 



THE "DETROIT" ZERO DOUBLE CONNECTION LUBRICATOR. 




also the engineer may see how much oil there is in the 
cup. Such a cup is suitable for all parts of an engine 
except the crank pin, cross-head, and^ of course, the 
cylinder. 

The crank pin oiler is an oil cup so arranged as to force 
oil into the bearing only when the engine is w^orking, and 
more rapidly as the engine w^orks more rapidly. In one 
form, which uses liquid oil, the oil stands below a disc; 
from which is the opening through the shank to the 
bearing. As the engine speeds up, the centrifugal force 



THE i^lMPLE ENGINE. 



45 



tends to force the oil to the top of the cup and so on to the 
bearing, and the higher the speed the greater the antount 
of oil thrown into the crank pin. 

Hard oil or grease has of late been coming intO' exten- 
sive use. It is placed in a compression cup, at the top of 
which a disc is pressed down by a spring, and also by some 
kind of a screw. From time to time the screw is tight- 
ened up by hand, and the spring automatically forces 
down the grease. 

The Cylinder Lubricator is constructed on a different 
principle, and uses an entirely different kind of oil, called 





GLASS OIL CUP. 



SECTIONAL VIEW IDEAL 
GREASE CUP. 



''cylinder oil.'' A sight-feed automatic oiler is so ar- 
ranged that the oil passes through w^ater drop by drop, so 
that each drop can be seen behind glass before it passes 
into the steam pipe leading from the boiler to the cylin- 
der. The oil mingles with the steam and passes into the 
steam chesty and thence into the cylinder, lubricating the 
valve and piston. 

The discharge of the oil may not only be watched, but 
regulated, and some judgment is necessary to make sure 
that enough oil is passing into the cylinder to- prevent it 
from cutting. 

The oil is forced into the steam by the weight of the 




46 YOUNG engineers' guide. 

column of water, since the steam pressure is the same at 
both ends. There is a small cock by which this water of 
condensation may be drained off when the engine is shut 
down in cold weather. Oilers are also injured by strain- 
ing from heating caused by the steam 
acting on cold oil when all the cocks 
are closed. There is a relief cock to 
prevent this strain, and it should be 
slightly opened, except when oiler is be- 
ing filled. 

There are a number of different types 
of oilers, with their cocks arranged in 
different ways ; but the manufacturer al- 
AcoRN OIL PUMP ^^ays gives diagrams and instructions 
fully explaining the working of the oiler. 
Oil pumps serving the same purpose are now o-ften used. 

DIFFERENTIAL GEAR. 

The gearing by which the traction wheels of a traction 
engine are made to drive the engine is an important item. 
Of course, it is desirable to apply the power of the engine 
to both traction wheels; yet if both hind wheels were 
geared stiff, the engine could not turn from 'a straight 
line, since in turning one wheel must move faster than 
the other. The differential or compensating gear is a 
device to leave both wheels free to move one ahead of 
the other if occasion requires. The principle is much the 
same as in case of a rachet on a geared wheel, if power 
were applied to the ratchet to make the wheel turn ; if 
for any reason the wheel had a tendency of its own to 
turn faster than the ratchet forced it, it would be free to 
do so. When corners are turned the power is applied to 
one wheel only^ and the other wheel is permitted to move 
faster or slower than the wheel to which the gearing 
applies the power. 

There are several forms of differential gears, differing 
largely as to combination of spur or bevel cogs. One of 
the best known uses four little beveled pinions, which are 
placed in the main driving wheel as shown in the cut. 
Beveled cogs work into these on either side of the main 



tHE SIMPLE ENGINE. 



4? 



wheel If one traction wheel moves faster than the other 
these pinions move around and adjust the gears on either 
side. 

FRICTION CLUTCH. 

The power of an engine is usually applied to the trac- 
tion wheel by a friction clutch working on the inside of 




the fly-wheel. (See plan of Frick Engine.) The 
traction wheels are the two large, broad-rimmed hind 
wheels, and are provided with projections to give them 



48 



YOCNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



a firm footing on the road. Traction engines are atso 
provided with mud shoes and wheel cleaning devices for 
mud and snow. 

THE FUSIBLE PLUG. 

The fusible plug is a simple screw plug, the center of 
which is bored out and subsequently filled with 
some other metal that will melt at a lower tem- 
perature than steel or iron. This plug is placed in the 
crown sheet of a locomotive boiler as a precaution for 




AULTMAN & TAYLOR BEVEL COMrENSATING GEAR 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 



40 



safety. Should the crown sheet become free of water 
when the fire is very hot, the soft metal in the fusible 
plug would melt and run out, and the overheated steam 




DIFFERENTIAL GEAR, SHOWING CUSHION SPRINGS 
AND BEVEL PINION. 

would escape into the firebox, putting ovit the fire and 
giving the boiler relief so that an explosion would be 
avoided. In some states a fusible plug is required by 



50 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

law, and one is found in nearly every boiler which has a 
crO'wn sheet. Return flue boilers and others w^hich do 
not have crown sheets (as for example the vertical) do 
not have fusible plugs. To be of value a f'usible plus^ 
should be renewed or changed once a month. 

STUFFING BOXES. 

Any arrangement to make a steam-tight joint about a 
moving rod, such as a piston rod or steam valve rod. 
would be called a stuffing box. Usually the stuffing box 
gives free play to a piston rod or valve rod, without al- 
lowing any steam to escape. A stuffing box is also 
used on a pump piston sometimes^ or a compressed air 
piston. In all these cases it consists of an annular space 
around the moving rod which can be partly filled by some 
pliable elastic material such as hemp, cotton, rubber, or 
the like ; and this filling is held in place and made tighter 
or looser by what is called a gland, which is forced into 
the partly filled box by screwing up a cap on the outside 
of the cylinder. Stuffing boxes must be repacked occa- 
sionally, since the packing material will get hard and 
dead, and will either leak steam or cut the rod. 

CYLINDER COCKS. 

These cocks are for the purpose of drawing the water 
formed by condensation of steam out of the cylinder. 
They should be opened whenever the engine is stopped or 
started, and should be left open when the engine is shut 
down, especially in cold weather to prevent freezing of 
water and consequent damage. Attention to these cocks 
is very important. 

These are small cocks arranged about the pump and at 
other places for the purpose of testing the inside action. 
By them it is possible to see if the pump is working prop- 
erly, etc. 

STEAM INDICATOR. 

The steam indicator is an instrument that can be at- 
tached to either end of a steam cylinder, and will indicate 
the character of the steam pressure during the entire 



TiiE SIMPLE ENGINE. 



St 



stroke of the piston. It shows clearly whether the lead is 
right, how much cushion there is, etc. It is very import- 
ant in studying the economical use and distribution of 
steam, expansive force of steam, etc. 




52 



YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE. 



LIST OF ATTACHMENTS FOR TRACTION ENGINE AND BOILER. 

The following list of brasses, etc., which are packed 
with the Case traction engine will be useful for reference 
in connection with any similar traction engine and boiler. 
The young engineer should rapidly run over every new 
engine and locate each of these parts, which will be dif- 
ferently placed on different engines : 



I Steam Gauge with siphon, 

I Safety Valve. 

I Large Lubricator. 

1 Small Lubricator for 
Pump. 

7. Glass Water Gauge com- 
plete with glass and rods. 

2 Gauge Cocks. 
Whistle. 

Injector Complete. 
Globe Valve for Blow-off. 
Compression Grease Cup 
for Cross Head. 
Grease Cup for Crank 
Pin. 

Oiler for Reverse Block. 
Glass Oiler for Guides. 
Small Oiler for Eccentric 
Rod. 



Cylinder Cock (i 



is left 



in place 
Stop Cocks to drain 
Heater. 

Stop Cock for Hose Coup- 
ling on Pump. 



I Bibb Nose Cock for 
Pump. 

1 Pet Cock for Throttle. 

2 Pet Cocks for Steam Cyl- 
inder of Pump. 

I Pet Cock for Water Cyl- 
inder of Pump. 

I Pet Cock for Feed Pipe 
from Pump. 

I Pet Cock for Feed Pipe 
from Injector. 

I Governor Belt. 

I Flue Cleaner. 

15 ft. lin. Suction Hose. 

5 ft. Sprinkling Hose. 

I Strainer for Suction Hose. 

1 Strainer for Funnel. 

4 ft. 6 in. of in. Hose for 
Injector. 

5 ft. 6 in of in. Hose for 
Pump. 

2 Nipples }ix2y2 in. for 
Hose. 
}i in. Hose Clamps. 



>2 in. Hose StrainerSc 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 53 

TEST QUESTIONS ON BOILER AND ENGINE 

Q. How is the modern stationary fire-flue boiler ar- 
ranged ? 

Q. How does the locomotive type of boiler differ ? 

Q. What is a return flue boiler? 

Q. What is a water-tube boiler and how does it differ 
from a fire-flue tubular boiler ? 

Q. What is a vertical boiler and what are its advan- 
tages ? 

Q. What is the shell? 

Q. What are the boiler heads ? 

Q. What are the tube sheets ? 

O. What is the firebox ? 

Q. What is the water leg ? 

O. What is the crown-sheet? 

Q. Where is the smoke-box located? 

Q. What is the steam dome intended for ? 

Q. What is the mud-drum for? 

Q. What are man-holes and hand-holes for? 

O. What is a boiler jacket? 

Q. What is a steam jacket? 

Q. Where is the ash-pit? 

Q. What are dead-plates ? 

Q. How is grate surface measured? 

O. What is forced draft ? 

Q. How is heating surface measured ? 

Q. What is steam space ? 

Q. What is water space? 

Q. What is a diaphragm plate? 

Q. What is the first duty of an engineer in taking 
charge of a new boiler ? 

Q. What are the water gauge and try cocks for, and 
how are they placed ? 

Q. What is the steam gauge and how may it be 
tested ? 

Q. What is a safety valve ? Should it be touched by 
the engineer ? How may he test it with the steam 
gauge? 

Q. How is a boiler first filled with water ? 

Q. How is it filled when under pressure ? 



54 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

Q. What is an independent pump? What is a cross- 
head pump? 

Q. What is a check valve, and what is its use, and 
where located ? 

Q. What is a heater and how does it work? 

Q. What is an injector, and what is the principle of 
its operation? 

Q. Where are the blow-off cocks located? How 
should they be used ? 

Q. In what cases should spark arrester be used? 

Q. Who invented the steam engine, and when? 

Q. What are the essential parts of a steam engine? 

Q. What is the cylinder, and how is it used? 

Q. What is the piston, and how does it work? The 
piston-rings ? 

Q. What is the piston rod and how must it be fast- 
ened? 

Q. What is the crosshead, and how does it move? 
What are guides or ways ? Shoes ? 

Q. What is the connecting rod? Wrist pin? Crank 
pin? 

Q. What is the crank? Crank shaft? 

Q. ■ Where is the throttle valve located, and what does 
opening and closing it do? 

0. What is the steam chest for, and where is it 
placed ? 

Q. What is a steam valve? Valve seats?' Ports? 

Q. What is the exhaust? Exhaust chamber? Ex- 
haust port? Exhaust nozzle? What is a condenser? 

Q. How is the valve worked, and what duties does it 
perform, and how? 

Q. What is clearance? 

Q. What is lead? 

Q. What is cushion? 

Q, How would you set a valve ? What is lap ? 

Q. How is a steam valve moved back and forth in its 
seat? 

Q. How may an engine be reversed ? 

Q. What is a governor, and how does it work? 



THE SIMPLE ENGINE. 55 

Q. What is an eccentric ? Eccentric shea\ e ? Strap ? 
Rod? 

Q. What is the throw of an eccentric ? 

O. How does the hnk reversing gear work ? 

Q. How does the Woolf reverse gear work ? 

O. How does the Meyer valve gear work ? Will it re- 
verse an engine ? 

Q. What are the chief difficulties in the working of a 
governor ? 

Q. What are key, gib, and strap? Brasses? 

Q. What is the boss of a crank? Web? 

Q, How may noiseless running of a crank be se- 
cured ? 

O What are journals? Pedestals? Pillow blocks? 
Journal boxes ? 

Q. What is the object in having a fly wheel? 

Q. What different kinds of lubricators are there? 
Where may hard oil or grease be used ? Is the oil used 
for lubricating the cylinder the same as that used for rest 
of engine ? 

Q. How does a cylinder lubricator work? 

Q. What is differential gear, and what is it for? 

Q. What is the use of a fusible plug, and how is it 
arranged ? 

Q. What are stuffing-boxes, and how are they con- 
structed ? 

Q. What are cylinder cocks, and what are they used 
for? 

O. What are pet cocks? 

Q. What is a steam indicator? 



CHAPTER IV. 

HOW TO MANAGE A TRACTION ENGINE BOILER. 

We will suppose that the young engineer fully under- 
stands all parts of the boiler and engine, as explained in 
the preceding chapters. It is well to run over the ques- 
tions several times, to make sure that every point has 
been fully covered and is well understood. 

We will suppose that you have an engine in good run- 
ning order. If you have a new engine and it starts off 
nice and easy (the lone engine without load) with twenty 
pounds steam pressure in the boiler, you may make up 
your mind that you have a good engine to handle and 
one that will give but little trouble. But if it requires fifty 
or sixty pounds to start it, you want to keep your eyes 
open, for something is tight. But don't begin taking the 
engine to pieces, for you might get more pieces than you 
know what to do with. Oil every bearing fully, and then 
start your engine and let it run for a while. Then notice 
whether you find anything getting warm. If you do, stop 
and loosen up a very little and start again. If the heat- 
ing still continues, loosen again as before. But remem- 
ber, loosen but little at a time, for a box or journal will 
heat from being too loose as quickly as from being too 
tight, and if you have found a warm box, don't let that 
box take all your attention, but keep your eye on the 
other bearings. 

In the case of a new engine, the cylinder rings may be 
a little tight, and so more steam pressure will be required 
to start the engine ; but this is no fault, for in a day or two 
they will be working all right if kept well oiled. 

In starting a new engine trouble sometimes comes from 
the presence of a coal cinder in some of the boxes, which 
has worked in during shipment. Before starting a new 
engine, the boxes and oil holes should therefore be thor- 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. 57 

oughly cleaned out. For this purpose the engineer 
should always have some cotton waste or an oiled rag 
ready for constant use. 

A new engine should be run slowly and carefully until 
it is found tO' be in perfect running order. 

If you are beginning on an old engine in good running 
order, the above instructions will not be needed ; but it is 
well to take note of them. 

Now if your engine is all right, you may run the press- 
ure up to the point of blowing off, which is lOO to 130 
pounds, at which most safety valves are set at the fac- 
tory. It is not uncommon for a new pop to stick, and as 
the steam runs up it is well to try it by. pulling the relief 
lever. If on letting it go it stops the escaping steam, at 
once, it is all right. If, however, the steam continues to 
escape the valve sticks in the chamber. Usually a slight 
tap with a wrench or hammer will stop it at once ; but don't 
get excited if the steam continues to escape. As long as 
you have plenty of water in the boiler, and know that you 
.have it, you are all right. 

STARTING UP A BOILER. 

Almost the only danger from explo'sion of a boiler is 
from not having sufficient water in the boiler. The boiler 
is filled in the first place, as has already been explained, 
by hand through a funnel at the filler plug, or by a force 
pump. The water should stand an inch and a half in the 
glass of the water gauge before the fire is started. It 
should be heated up slowly so as not to strain the boiler or 
connections. When the steam pressure as shown by the 
steam gauge is ten or fifteen pounds, the blower may be 
used to increase the draft. 

If you let the water get above the top of the glass, you 
are liable to knock out a cylinder head ; and if you let the 
water get below the bottom of the glass, you are likely to 
explode your boiler. 

The glass gauge is not to be depended upon, however, 
for a number of things may happen to interfere with its 
working. Some one may inadvertently turn off the gauge 
cocks, and though the water stands at the proper height 
in the g^lass, the water in the boiler will be very different 



58 YOUNG engineers' guide. 

A properly made boiler is supplied with two to four try- 
cocks, one below the proper water line, and one above it. 
If there are more than two they will be distributed at suit- 
able points between. 

When the boiler is under pressure, turn on the lower 
try-cock and you should get water. You will know it 
because it will appear as white mist. Then try the upper 
try-cock, and you will get steam, which will appear blue. 

NEVER FAIL TO USE THE TRY-COCKS FRE- 
QUENTLY. This is necessary not only because you 
never know when the glass is deceiving you ; but if you 
fail to use them they will get stopped up with lime or mud, 
and when you need to use them they will not work. 

In order also to keep the water gauge in proper condi- 
tion, it should be frequently blown out in the following 
manner : Shut off the top gauge cock and open the drain 
cock at the bottom of the gauge. This allows the water 
and steam to blow through the lower cock of the watef 
gauge, and you know that it is open. Any lime or mud 
that has begun to accumulate will also be carried off. Af- 
ter allowing the steam to escape a few seconds, shut off 
the lower gauge cock, and open the upper one, and allow it 
to blow off about the same time. Then shut the drain cock 
and open both gauge cocks, when you wall see the water 
seek its level, and you can feel assured that it is reliable 
and in good working condition. This little operation you 
should perform, every day you run your engine. If you 
do you will not think you have sufficient water in the 
boiler, but will knozv. The engineer whoi always know\s 
he has water in the boiler will not be likely to have an ex- 
plosion. Especially should you never start your fire in 
the morning simply because you see water in the gauge. 
You should knozi? that there is water in the boiler. 

- Now if your pump and boiler are in good working con- 
dition, and you leave the globe valve in the supply pipe 
to the pump open, with the hose in the tank, you will prob- 
ably come to your engine in the morning and find the 
boiler nearly full of water, and you will think some one 
has been tampering with the engine. The truth is, how- 
ever, that as the steam condensed, a vacuum was formed, 
and the water flowed in on account of atmospheric press- 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. 59 

ure^ just as it flows into a suction pump when the plunger 
rises and creates a vacuum in the pump. Check valves 
are arranged to prevent anything passing out of the boiler, 
but there is nothing to prevent water passing in. 

The only other cause of an explosion, beside poor mate- 
rial in the manufacture of the boiler, is too high steam 
pressure, due to a defective safety valve or imperfect 
team gauge. The steam gauge is likely to get out of 
order in a number of ways, and so is the safety valve. To 
make sure that both are all right, the one should frequent- 
ly be tested by the other. The lever of the safety valve 
should frequently be tried from time to time, to make sure 
the valve opens and closes easily, and whenever the safety 
valve blows off, the steam gauge should be noted to see 
if it indicates the pressure at which the safety has been 
set. 

WHEN YOUR ENGINE IS ALL RIGHT, LET IT ALONE. 

Some engineers are always loosening a nut here, tight- 
ning up a box there, adjusting this, altering that. When 
an engine is all right they keep at it till it is all wTong. 
As a result they are in trouble most of the time. When 
an engine is running all right, LET IT ALONE. Don't 
think you are not earning your salary because you are 
nerely sitting still and looking on. If you must be at 
work, keep at it with an oily rag, cleaning and polishing 
up. That is the way to find out if anything is really the 
matter. As the practised hand of the skilled engineer 
goes over an engine, his ears wide open for any peculiar- 
ity of sound, anything that is not as it should be will make 
itself decidedly apparent. On the other hand, an en- 
gineer who does not keep his engine clean and bright by 
constantly passing his hand over it with an oily rag, is 
certain to overlook something, which perhaps in the end 
will cost the owner a good many dollars to put right. 

Says an old engineer"^ we know, ''When I see an en- 
gineer watching his engine closely while running, I am. 
m.ost certain to see another commendable feature in a 

*J. H. Maggard, author of ''Rough and Tumble Engineering," 
to whom we are indebted for a number of valuable suggestions in 
this chapter. 



6o YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

good engineer, and that is, when he stops his engine he 
will pick up a greasy rag and go over his engine carefully, 
wiping every working part, watching or looking carefully 
at every point that he touches. If a nut is working 
loose, he finds it ; if a bearing is hot, he finds it ; if any part 
of his engine has been cutting, he finds it. He picks up a 
greasy rag instead of a wrench, for the engineer that un- 
derstands his business and attends to it never picks up a 
wrench unless he has something to- do with it.*' 

This same engineer goes on with some more most ex- 
cellent advice. Says he : 

''Now, if your engine runs irregularly, that is, if it 
runs up to a higher speed than you want, and then runs 
down, you are likely to say at once, 'Oh^ I know what the 
trouble is, it is the governor/ Well, suppose it is. What 
are you going to do about it? Are you going to shut 
down at once and go to tinkering with it ? No, don't do 
that. Stay close to the throttle valve and watch the 
governor closely. Keep your eye on the governor stem, 
and when the engine starts off on one of its speed tilts, 
^/ou will see the stem go down through the stuffing box 
and then stop and stick in one place until the engine slows 
dow^n below its regular speed, and it then lets loose and 
goes up quickly and your engine lopes off again. You 
have now located the trouble. It is in the stuffing box 
around the little brass rod or governor stem. The pack- 
ing has become dry and by loosening it up and applying 
oil you may remedy the trouble until such time as you 
can repack it with fresh packing. Candle wick is as good 
for this purpose as anything yoiu can use. 

''But if the governor does not act as I have described, 
and the stem seems to be perfectly free and easy in the 
box, and the governor still acts queerly, starting off and 
running fast for a few seconds and then suddenly con- 
cluding to take it easy and away goes the engine again, 
see if the governor belt is all right, and if it is it would be 
well for you to stop and see if a wheel is not loose. It 
might be either the little belt wheel or one o^f the little 
cog wheels. If you find these are all right, examine the 
spool on the crank shaft from which the governor is run, 



HOW to MANAGE A BOILER. 6l 

and you will probably find it loose. If the engine has been 
run for any length of time, you will always find the 
trouble in one of these places ; but if it is a new one, the 
governor valve might work a little tight in the valve cham- 
ber, and you may have to take it out and use a little emery 
paper to take off the rough projections on the valve. 
Never use a file on this valve if you can get emery paper, 
and I should advise you always to have some of it with 
you. It will often come handy.'' 

This is good advice in regard to any trouble you may 
have with an engine. Watch the affected part closely; 
think the matter over carefully, and see if you cannot lo- 
cate the difficulty before you even stop your engine. If 
you find the trouble and know that you have found it, 
you will soon be able to correct the defect, and no time will 
be lost. At the same time you will not ruin your engine 
by trying all sorts of remedies at random in the thought 
that you may ultimately hit the right thing. The chances 
are that before you do hit the right point, you will have 
put half a dozen other matters wrong, and it will take half 
a day to get the matter right again. 

As there are many different types of governors in use, 
it would be impossible to give exact directions for regu- 
lating that would apply to them all ; but the following sug- 
gestions applying to the Waters governor (one widely 
used on threshing engines) will give a general idea of the 
method for all : 

There are two little brass nuts on the top of the stem of 
the governor, one a thumb nut and the other a loose jam 
nut. To increase the speed, loosen the jam nut and then 
turn the thumb nut back slowly, watching the motion of 
the engine all the time. When the required speed has 
been obtained, then tighten up as snug as you can with 
your fingers (not using a wrench) . To decrease the speed, 
loosen the jam nut as before, running it up a few turns, 
and then turn down the thumb nut till the speed meets 
your requirements, when the thumb nut is made fast as 
before. In any case, be very careful not to press down on 
the stem when turning the thumb nut, as this will make 



62 YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE. 

the engine run a little slower than will be the case when 
your hand has been removed. 

If your engine does not start wnth an open throttle, look 
to see if the governor stem has not been screwed down 
tight. This is usually the case with a new engine, which 
has been screwed down for safety in transportation. 

WATER FOR THE BOILER. 

There is nothing that needs such constant watching and 
is likely to cause so much trouble if it is not cared for, as 
the supply of water. Hard well water will coat the in- 
side of the boiler with lime and soon reduce its steaming 
power in a serious degree, to say nothing of stopping up 
pipes, cocks, etc. At the same time, rain water that is 
perfectly pure (theoretically) wdll be found to have a lit- 
tle acid or alkali in it that will eat through the iron or steel 
and do equal damage. 

However, an engineer must use what water he can. He 
cannot have it made to order for him, but he must take it 
from well, from brook, or cistern, or roadside 'ditch, as 
circumstances may require. The problem for the engi- 
neer is not to get the best water, but to make the best use 
of whatever water he can get, always, of course, choosing- 
the best and purest when there is such a thing as choos- 
ing. , ^ 

In the first place, all supply pipes in water that is 
muddy or likely to have sticks, leaves, or the like in it, 
should be furnished with strainers. If sticks or leaves get 
into the valve, the expense in time and worry to get. them 
out will be ten times the cost of a strainer. 

If the water is rain water, and the boiler is a new one, 
it would be well to put in a little lime to give the iron a 
slight coating that will protect it from any acid or alkali 
corrosion. 

If the water is hard, some compound or sal ammonia 
should be used. No specific directions can be given, since 
water is made hard by having different substances dis- 
solved in it, and the right compound or chemical is that 
which is adapted to the particular substance you are to 
counteract. An old engineer says his advice is to use no 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. 6^, 

compound at all, but to put a hatful of potatoes in the 
boiler every morning. 

Occasionally using rain water for a day or two previous 
to cleaning is one of the best things in the world to re- 
move and throw down all scale. It beats compounds at 
every point. It is nature's remedy for the bad eflects of 
hard water. 

The important thing, however, is to clean the boiler 
thoroughly and often. In no case should the lime be al- 
lowed to bake on the iron. If it gets thick, the iron or 
steel is sure to burn, and the lime tO' bake so hard it will be 
almost impossible to get it off. But if the boiler is cleaned 
often, such a thing will not happen. 

Mud or sediment can be blown oft by opening the valve 
from the mud drum or the firebox at the bottom of the 
boiler when the pressure is not over 15 or 20 pounds ; and 
at this pressure much of the lim.e distributed about the 
boiler may be blown of?. But this is not enough. The 
inside of the boiler should be scraped and thoroughly 
washed out with a hose and force-pump just as often as 
the condition of the water requires it. 

In cleaning the boiler, always be careful to scrape all 
the lime off the top of the fusible plug. 

THE PUMP. 

In order to manage the pump successfully, the young 
engineer must understand thoroughly its construction as 
already described. It is also necessary to understand 
something of the theory of atmospheric pressure, lifting 
pQVv^er, and forcing power. 

First see that the cocks or globe valves (whichever are 
used) are open both between the boiler and the pump and 
between the pump and the water supply. The globe 
valve next the boiler should never be closed, except when 
examining the boiler check valve. Then open the little 
pet cock between the two upper horizontal check valves. 
Be sure that the check valves are in good order, so that 
water can pass only in one direction. A clear, sharp 
click of the check valves is certain evidence that the pump 
is working well. If you cannot hear the click, take a stick 



64 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

or pencil between your teeth at one end, put the other end 
on the valve, stuff your fingers in your ears, and you will 
hear the movement of the valve as plainly as if it were a 
sledge-hammer. 

The small drain cock between the horizontal check 
valves is used to drain hot water out of the pump in start- 
ing, for a pump will never work well with hot water in 
it; and to drain cfif all water in closing down in cold 
vv^eather, to prevent damage from freezing. It also assists 
in testing the working of the pump. In starting up it 
may be left open. If water flows from the drain cock, we 
know the pump is working all right, and then close the 
drain cock. If you are at any time in doubt as to whether 
water is going into the boiler properly, you may open this 
drain cock and see if cold water flows freely. If it does, 
everything is working as it should. If hot water appears, 
you may know something is wrong. Also, to test the 
pumip, place your hand on the two check valves, and if 
they are cold, the pump is all right ; if they are hot, some- 
thing is wrong, since the heat must come from the boiler, 
and no hot water or steam should ever be allowed to pass 
from the boiler back to the pump. 

A stop cock next the boiler is decidedly preferable to a 
globe valve, since you can tell if it is open by simpl}= 
looking at it ; whereas you must put your hand on a globe 
valve and turn it. Trouble often arises through inadver- 
tently closing the valve or cock next the boiler, in which 
case, of course, no water can pass into the boiler, and the 
pump is likely to be ruined, since the witer must get out 
somewhere. Some part of the pump would be sure to 
burst if worked against a closed boiler cock or valve. 

Should the pump suddenly cease to w^ork or stop, first 
see if you have any water in the tank. If there is water, 
stoppage may be due to air in the pump chamber, w^hich 
can get in only through the stuffing-box. If this is true, 
tighten up the pump plunger stuffing-box nut a little. If 
now the pump starts ofif well, you have found the diffi- 
cultv ; but at the first opportunity you ought to repack the 
stuffing-box. 

If the stuffing-box is all right, examine the supply suC" 



HOW TO MANAGE A IBOILER. 65 

tion hose. See that nothing is clogging the strainer, and 
ascertain whether the water is sucked in or not. If it is 
sucked in and then is forced out again (which you can 
ascertain by holding your hand Hghtly over the suction 
pipe), you may know som,ething is the matter with the 
first check valve. Probably a stick or stone has gotten 
into it and prevents it from shutting down. 

If there is ne suction, examine the second check valve. 
If there is something under it that prevents its closing, the 
water will flow^ back into the pump chamber again as 
soon as the plunger is drawn back. 

You can always tell whether the trouble is in the second 
check or in the hot water check valve by opening the 
little drain cock. If hot water flows from it, you may 
know that the hot water check valve is out of order; if 
only cold water flows, you may be pretty sure the hot 
water check is all right. If there is any reason tO' sus- 
pect the hot water check valve, close the stop cock or valve 
next the boiler before you touch the check in any way. 
To tamper with the hot water check while the 
steam pressure is upon it would be highly dangerous, for 
you are liable to get badly burned with escaping steam 
or hot water. At the same time, be very sure the stop 
cock or valve next the boiler is open again before you 
start the pump. 

Another reason for check valves refusing to work be- 
sides having something under themi, is that the valve may 
stick in the valve chamber because of a rough place in the 
chamber, or a little projection on the valve. Light tap- 
ping with a wrench may remedy the matter. If that does 
not work, try the following plan suggested, by an old 
engineer* : "Take the valve out, bore a hole in a board 
about one-half inch deep, and large enough to permit the 
valve to be turned. Drop a little emery dust in this hole 
If you haven't any emery dust, scrape some grit from a 
whetstone. If you have no v/hetstone, put some fine sand 
or gritty soil in the hole, put the valve on top of it, put 
your brace on the valve and turn it vigorously for a few 

minutes^ and you will remove all roughness.'* 

" — t 

*J. H Maggard. 



65 VoUing engineers' guiM. 

Sometimes the burr on the valve comes from long use; 
but the above treatment will make it as good as new. 

Injectors. 

All injectors are greatly affected by conditions, such as 
the lift, the steam, pressure, the temperature of the water, 
etc. An injector will not use hot water well, if at all. 
As the lift is greater, the steam pressure required to start 
is greater, and at the same time the highest steam press- 
ure under which the injector will work at all is greatly 
decreased. The same applies to the lifting of warm 
w^ater: the higher the temperature, the greater the steam 
pressure required to start, and the less the steam pressure 
which can be used as a maximum. 

It is important for the sake of economy to use the right 
sized injector. Before buying a new injector, find out 
first how much water you need for your boiler, and then 
buy an injector of about the capacity required, though of 
course an injector must always have a maximum capacity 
in excess of what will be required. 

If the feed water is cold, a good injector ought to start 
with 25 pounds steam pressure and work up to 150 
pounds for a 2-foot lift. If the lift is eight feet, it will 
start at 30 pounds and work up to 130. If the water is 
heated to 100 degrees Fahrenheit it will start for a 2-foot 
lift with 26 pounds and work up to 120 pounds, or for an 
8-foot hft, it will start with 33 pounds and work up to 
100. These figures apply to the single tube injector. The 
double tube injector should work from 14 pounds tO' 250, 
and from 15 to 210 under same conditions as above. The 
double tube injector is not commonly used on farm en- 
gines, however. 

Care should be taken that the injector is not so near the 
boiler as to become heated, else it will not work. If it 
gets too hot^ it must be cooled by pouring cold water on 
the outside, first having covered it with a cloth to hold the 
water. If the injector is cool, and the steam pressure and 
lift are all right, and still the injector does not work, you 
may be sure there is some obstruction somewhere. Shut 
off the steam from the boiler, and run a fine wire down 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. (^"J 

through the cone valve or cyhnder valve, after having 
removed the cap or plug nut. 

Starting an injector always requires some skill, and in- 
jectors differ. Some start by manipulating the steam 
valve ; some require that the steam be turned on first, and 
then the water turned on in just the right amount^ usually 
with a quick short twist o^f the supply valve. Often some 
patience is required to get just the right turn on it so that 
it will start. 

Of course you must be sure that all joints are air-tight, 
else the injector will not work under any conditions. 

Never use an injector where a pump can be used, as 
the injector is much more wasteful of steam. It is for an 
emergency or to throw water in a boiler when engine is 
not running. 

No lubricator is needed on an injector. 

THE HEATER. 

The construction of the heater has already been ex- 
plained. It has two check valves, one on the side of the 
pump and one on the side of the boiler, both opening 
toward the boiler. The exhaust steam is usually at a 
temperature of 215 to 220 degrees when it enters the heat- 
er chamber, and heats the water nearly or quite to boiling 
point as it passes through. The injector heats the water 
almost as hot. 

The heater requires little attention, and the check valves 
seldom get out of order. 

The pump is to be used when the engine is running, 
and the injector when the engine is closed down. The 
pump is the more economical ; but when the engine is not 
working the exhaust steam is not sufficient to heat the 
water in the heater; and pumping cold water into the 
boiler will quickly bring down the pressure and injure the 
boiler. 

ECONOMICAL FIRING. 

The manaeement of the fire is one of the most import- 
ant things in running a steam engine. On it depend 
two things of the greatest consequence — success in getting 
up steam quickly and keeping it at a steady pressure un- 



68 YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE. 

der all conditions ; and economy in the use of fuel. An 
engineer who understands firing in the most economical 
way wull probably saye his w^ages to his employer over 
the engineer who is indifferent or unscientific about it. 
Therefore the young engineer should give the subject 
great attention. 

First, let us consider firing with coal. All expert en- 
gineers advise a ''thin" fire. This means that you should 
have a thin bed of coals, sa}^ about four inches thick, all 
over the grate. There should be no holes or dead places 
in this, for if there are any, cold air will short-circuit into 
the fire flues and cool off the boiler. 

The best way of firing is to spread the coal on with a 
small hand shovel, a very little at a time, scattering it well 
over the fire. Another way, recommended by some, is 
to have a small pile of fresh fuel at the front of the grate, 
pushing it back over the grate w^hen it is well lighted. To 
manage this y;ell will require some practice and skill, and 
for a beginner, we recommend scattering small shovels- 
ful all over the fire. All lump coal should be broken to a 
uniform size. No piece larger than a man's fist should 
be put in a firebox. 

Seldom use the poker above the fire, for nothing has 
such a tendency to put out a coal fire as stirring it v/ith a 
poker above. And when there is a good glow all over the 
grate below, the poker is not needed below. When the 
grate becomes covered with dead ashes, they should be 
v:autiously but fully remioved, and clinkers must be lifted 
out with the poker from above, care being exercised to 
cover up the holes with live coals. 

Hard coal if used should be dampened before' being put 
on the fire. 

When the fire Is burning a little too briskly, close the 
draft but do not tamper with the fire itself. Should it 
become important on a sudden emergency to check the 
fire at any time quickly, never dash water upon it, but 
rather throw plenty of fresh fuel upon it. Fresh fuel al- 
ways lowers the heat ?.t first. If all drafts are closed 
tight, it will lower the heat considerably for quite a time. 

In checking- a fire, it must be remembered that very 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. 69 

sudden cooling will almost surely crack the boiler. If 
there is danger of an explosion it may be necessary to 
draw the fire out entirely; but under no circumstances 
should cold water be thrown on. After drawing the fire 
close all doors and dampers. 

FIRING WITH WOOD. 

Always keep the fire door shut as much as possible, as 
cold air thus admitted will check the fire and ruin the 
boiler. 

Firing with wood is in many ways the exact reverse of 
firing with coal. The firebox should be filled full of 
wood at all times. The wood should be thrown in in 
every direction, in pieces of moderate size, and as it burns 
away, fresh pieces should be put in at the front so that 
they will get lighted and ready to burn before being 
pushed back near the boiler. It often helps a wood fire, 
too, to stir it with a poker. Wood makes much less ash 
than coal, and what little accumulates in the grate will 
not do much harm. Sometimes green wood will not burn 
because it gets too much cold air. In that case the sticks 
should be packed as close together as possible, still leav- 
ing a place for the air to pass. Also' a wood fire, espe- 
cially one with green wood, should be kept up to a high 
temperature all the time ; for if it is allowed to drop down 
the wood will suddenly cease to burn at all. 

FIRING WITH STRAW. 

In firing with straw it is important to keep the shute full 
of straw all the time so that no cold air can get in on top 
of the fire. Don't push the straw in too fast, either, but 
keep it moving at a uniform rate, with small forkfulls 
Now and then it is well to turn the fork over and run it 
down into the fire to keep the fire level. Ashes may be 
allowed to fill up in rear of ash box, but fifteen inches 
should be kept clear in front to provide draft. The brick 
arch may be watched from the side opening in the fire- 
box, and should show a continuous stream of white flame 
commg over it. If too much straw is forced in, that will 
check the flame. The flame should never be checked. If 



70 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

damp straw gets against the ends of the flues, it should be 
scraped off with the poker from side door. Clean the 
tubes well once a day. The draft must always be kept 
strong enough to produce a white heat, and if this cannot 
be done otherwise, a smaller nozzle may be used on the 
exhaust pipe; but this should be avoided when possible, 
since it causes back pressure on the engine. Never let the 
front end of the boiler stand on low ground. Engine 
should be level, or front end high, if it has a firebox lo- 
comotive boiler ; if a return flue boiler, be careful to keep 
it always level. In burning straw take particular notice 
that the spark screen in stack does not get filled up. 

THE ASH PIT. 

In burning coal it is exceedingly important that the 
ashes be kept cleaned out, as the hot cinders falling 
down on the heap of ashes almost as high as the grate will 
overheat the grate in a very short time and warp it all out 
of shape, so ruining it. 

With wood and straw, on the contrary, an accumulation 
of ashes will often help and will seldom do any harm, be- 
cause no very hot cinders can drop down below the grates, 
and the hottest part of the fire is some distance above the 



grates. 



STARTING A FIRE. 



You must make up your mind that it will take half an 
hour to an hour or so to get up steam in any boiler that is 
perfectly cold. The metal expands and shrinks a great 
deal with the heat and cold, and a sudden application of 
heat would ruin a boiler in a short time. Hence it is 
necessarv^ for reasons of engine economy to make changes 
of temperature, either cooling off or heating up, gradu- 
ally. 

First see that there is water in the boiler. 

Start a brisk fire with pine kindlings, gradually putting 
on coal or wood, as the case may be, and spreading the 
fi^e over the grate so that all parts will be covered with 
glowing coals. 

When you feave 15 or 20 pounds of steam, start the 



HOW TO M.VNAGE A BOILER. 7^ 

blower. As has already been described, the blower is a 
pipe with a nozzle leading from the steam space of the 
boiler to the smoke stack, and fitted with a globe valve. 
The force of the steam drives the air out of the stack, 
causing a vacuum, w^hich is immediately filled by the hot 
gases from the firebox coming through the boiler tubes. 
Little is to be gained by using the blower wdth less than 15 
pounds of steam, as the blower has so little strength be- 
low that, that it draws off about as much steam as is made 
and nothing is gained. 

The blower is seldom needed when the engine is work- 
ing, as the exhaust steam should be sufficient to keep th^ 
fire going briskly. If it is not, you should conclude that 
something is the matter. There are times, however, when 
the blow^enis required even when the engine is going. For 
example, if you are working with very light load and 
small use of steam, the exhaust may be insufficient to keep 
up the fire; and this will be especially true if the fuel is 
very poor. In such a case, turn on the blower very slight- 
ly. But remember that you are wasting steam if you can 
get along without the blower. 

Examine the nozzle of the blower now and then to see 
that it does not become limed up, or turned so as to direct 
the steam to one side of the stack, where its force would 
be wasted. 

Beware, also, of creating too much draft ; for too much 
draft will use up fuel and make little steam. 

SMOKE. 

Coal smoke is nothing more or less than unburned car- 
bon. The more smoke you get, the less will be the heat 
from a given amount of fuel. Great clouds of black 
smoke from an engine all the time are a very bad sign 
in an engineer. They show that he does not know how to 
fire. He has not followed the directions already given, to 
have a thin, hot fire, with few^ ashes under his grate. In- 
stead, he throws on great shovelsful of coal at a time, 
and has the coal up to the firebox door. His fuel is al- 
ways making smoke, which soon clogs up the smoke .flues 
^nd lessens the amount of steam he is getting. If he had 



'JZ YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

kept his fire very ''thin/' but very hot, throwing on a 
small hand shovel of coal at a time, seldom poking his 
fire except to lift out clinkers or clean away dead ashes 
under the grate, and keeping his ashpit free from ashes, 
there would be only a little puff of bla.ck smoke w^hen the 
fresh coal went on, and then the smoke would quickly 
disappear, while the fire flues would burn clean and not 
get clogged up w^ith soot. 

It is important, however, to keep the small fire flues es- 
pecially well cleaned out with a good flue cleaner ; for all 
accumulation of soot prevents the heat from passing 
through the steel, and so reduces the heating capacity of 
the boiler. Cleaning the tubes with a steam blower is 
never advisable, as it forms a paste on the tube that great- 
ly impairs its commodity. 

SPARKS. 

With coal there is little danger of fires caused by sparks 
from the engine. What sparks there are are heavy and 
dead, and will even fall on a pile of straw without setting 
it on fire. On a very windy day, however, w^hen you are 
running your engine very hard, especially if it is of the 
direct locomotive boiler type, you want to be careful even 
with coal. 

With wood it is very dift'erent ; and likewise with straw. 
Wood and straw sparks are always dangerous, and an en- 
gine should never be run for threshing with wood or 
straw without using a spark-arrester. 

It sometimes happens that when coal is used it will give 
out, and you will be asked to finish your job with wood. 
In such a case, it is the duty of an engineer to state fully 
and frankly the danger of firing with wood without a 
spark arrester, and he should go on only when ordered to 
do so by the proprietor, after he has been fully warned. 
In that case all responsibility is shifted from the engineer 
to the owner. 

THE FUSIBLE PLUG. 

The careful engineer will never have occasion to do 
anything to the fusible plug except to clean the scaJe off 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. y^ 

from the top of it on the inside of the boiler once a week, 
and put in a fresh plug once a month. It is put in merely 
as a precaution to provide for carelessness. The engineer 
who allows the fusible plug to melt out is by that very fact 
marked as a careless man, and ought to find it so much 
the harder to get a job. 

As has already been explained, the fusible plug is a plug 
filled in the middle with some m.etal that will melt at a 
comparatively low temperature. So long as it is covered 
with water, no amount of heat will melt it, since the water 
conducts the heat away from the metal and never allows 
it to rise above a certain temperature. When the plug is 
no longer covered with water, however, — in short, when 
the water has fallen below the danger line in the boiler — 
the metal in the plug will fuse, or melt, and make an open- 
ing through which the steam will blow into the firebox 
and put out the fire. However, if the top of the fusible 
plug has been allowed to become thickly coated with scale, 
this safety precaution may not work and the boiler may 
explode. In any case the fusible plug is not to be de- 
pended on. 

At the same time a good engineer will take every pre- 
caution, and one of these is to keep the top of the plug 
well cleaned. Also he will have an extra plug all ready 
and filled with composition metal, to put in should the 
plug in the boiler melt out. Then he will refill the old 
pliig as soon as possible. This may be done by putting a 
little moist clay in one end to prevent the hot metal from 
running through, and then pouring into the other end of 
the plug as much melted metal as it will hold. When cold, 
tamp down solidly. 

LEAKY FLUES. 

One common cause of leaky flues is leaving the fire door 
open so that currents of cold air will rush in on the heated 
flues and cause them, or some other parts of the boiler, to 
contract too suddenly. The best boiler made may be 
ruined in time Ijy allowing cold currents of air to strike 
the heated interior. Once or twice will not do it ; but con- 



74 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE, 

tinually leaving the fire door open will certainly work 
mischief in the end. 

Of course, if flues in a new boiler leak, it is the fault of 
the boiler maker. The tubes were not large enough to 
fill the holes in the tube sheets properly. But if a boiler 
runs for a season or so and then the flues begin to leak, 
the chances are that it is due to the carelessness of the en- 
gineer. It may be he has been making his fires too hot ; 
it may be leaving the firebox door open ; it may be running 
the boiler at too high pressure ; it may be blowing out the 
boiler when it is too hot ; or blowing out the boiler when 
there is still some fire in the firebox ; it may be due to lime 
encrusted on the inside of the tube sheets, causing them 
to overheat. Flues may also be made to leak by pumping 
cold water into the boiler when the water inside is too low ; 
or pouring cold water into a hot boiler will do it. Some 
engineers blow out their boilers to clean them, and then 
being in a hurry to get to work, refill them while the metal 
is hot. The flues cannot stand this, since they are thinner 
than the shell of the boiler and cool much more quickly ; 
hence they will contract much faster than the rest of the 
boiler and something has to come loose. 

Once a flue starts to leaking, it is not likely to stop till 
it has been repaired ; and one leaky flue will make others 
leak. 

Now what shall you do with a leaky flue ? 

To repair a leaky flue you should have a flue expander 
and a calking tool, with a light hammer. If you are 
small enough you will creep in at the firebox door with a 
candle in your hand. First, clean off the ends of the flues 
and flue sheet with some cotton waste. Then force the ex- 
pander into the leaky flue, bringing the shoulder well up 
against the end of the flue. Then drive in the tapering 
pin. Be very careful not to drive it in too far, for if you 
expand the flue too much, you will strain the flue sheet 
and cause other flues to leak. You must use your judg- 
ment and proceed cautiously. It is better to make two or 
three trials than to spoil your boiler by bad work. The 
roller expander is preferable to the Prosser in the hai?ds 



HOW TO MANAGE A BOILER. 75 

of a novice. The tube should be expanded only enough 
to stop the leak. Farther expanding will only do injury. 

When you think the flue has been expanded enough, hit 
the pin a side blow to loosen it. Then turn the expander 
a quarter round, and drive in the pin again. Loosen up 
and continue till you have turned the expander entirely 
around. 

Finally remove the expander, and use the calking tool 
to bead the end. It is best, however, to expand all leaky 
flues before doing any beading. 

The beading is done by placing the guide or gauge in- 
side the flue, and then pounding the ends of the flue down 
against the flue sheet by light blows. Be very careful not 
to bruise the flue sheet or flues, and use no heavy blows, 
nor even a heavy hammer. Go slowly and carefully 
around the end of each flue ; and if you have done your 
work thoroughly and carefully the flues will be all right. 
But you should test your boiler before steaming up, to 
make sure that all the leaks are stopped, especially if there 
have been bad ones. 

There are various ways to testing a boiler. If water- 
works are handy, connect the boiler with a hydrant and 
after filling the boiler, let it receive the hydrant pressure. 
Then examine the calked flues carefully, and if you see 
any seeping of water, use your header lightly till the water 
stops. In case no waterworks with good pressure are at 
hand, you can use a hydraulic pump or a good force 
pump. 

The amount of pressure required in testing a boiler 
should be that at w^hich the safety valve is set to blow off, 
say no to 130 lbs. This will be sufficient. 

If you are in the field with no hydrant or force pump 
handy, you miay test your boiler in this way : Take off 
the safety valve and fill the boiler full of water through 
the safety valve opening. Then screw the safety back in 
its place. You should be sure that every bit of space in 
-the boiler is filled entirely full of water, with all openings 
tightly closed. Then get back in the boiler and have a 
bundle of straw burned under the firebox, or under the 
waist of the boiler, so that at some point the water will be 



76 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

slightly heated. This will cause pressure. If your safety 
valve is in perfect order, you will know as soon as water 
begins to escape at the safety valve whether your flues are 
calked tight enough or not. 

The water is heated only a few degrees, and the pres- 
sure is cold water pressure. In very cold weather this 
method cannot be used, however, as water has no expan- 
sive force within five degrees of freezing. 

The aljove methods are not intended for testing the 
safety of a boiler, but only for testing for leaky flues. If 
you wish to have your boiler tested, it is better to get an 
expert to do it. 



CHAPTER V. 

HOW TO MANAGE A TRACTION ENGINE. 

A traction engine is usually the simplest kind of an en- 
gine made. If it were not, it would require a highly ex- 
pert engineer to run it, and this would be too costly for a 
farmer or thresherman contractor. Therefore the build- 
ers of traction engines make them of the fewest possible 
partS; and in the most durable and simple style. Still, 
even the simplest engine requires a certain amount of 
brains to manage it properly, especially if you are to get 
the maximum of work out of it at the lowest cost. 

If the engine is in perfect order, about all you have to 
do is to see that all bearings are properly lubricated, and 
that the automatic oiler is in good working condition. 
But as soon as an engine has been used for a certain time, 
there will he wear, which will appear first in the journals, 
boxes and valve, and it is the first duty of a good engineer 
to adjuf t these. To adjust them accurately requires skill ; 
and it is the possession of that skill that goes to make a 
real engineer. 

Your first attention will probably be required for the 
croso-head and crank boxes or brasses. The crank box 
and pin will probably wear first ; but both the cross-head 
and crank boxes are so nearly alike that what is said of 
one will apply to the other. 

You will find the wrist box in two parts. In a new en- 
gine these parts do not quite meet. There is perhaps an 
eighth of an inch waste space between them. They are 
brought up to the box in most farm engines by a wedge- 
shaped key. This should be driven down a little at a 
time as the boxes wear, so as to keep them snug up to the 
pin, though not too tight. 

You continue to drive in the key and tighten up the 
l)Oxes as they wear until the two halves come tight to 

■ n 



78 YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE, 

gether. Then you can no longer accomplish anything in 
this way. 

When the brasses have worn so that they can be forced 
no closer together, they must be taken off and the ends of 
them filed where they come together. File off a sixteenth 
of an inch from each end. Do it with care, and be sure 
you get the ends perfectly even. When you have done 
this you will have another eighth of an inch to allow for 
wear. 

Now, by reflection you will see that as the wrist box 
wears, and the wedge-shaped key is driven in, the pitman 
(or piston arm) is lengthened to the amount that the half 
of the box farthest from the piston has worn away. When 
the brasses meet, this will amount to one-sixteenth of an 
inch. 

Now if you file the ends off and the boxes wear so as 
to come together once more, the pitman will have been 
shortened one-eighth of an inch ; and pretty soon the clear- 
ance of the piston in the cylinder will have been offset, 
and the engine will begin ta pound. In any case, the clear- 
ance at one end of the cylinder will be one-sixteenth or one- 
eighth of an inch less, and in the other end one-sixteenth 
or one-eighth of an inch more. When this is the case you 
will find that the engine is not working well. 

To correct this, when you file the brasses either of the 
cross-head box or the crank box you must put in some 
filling back of the brass farthest from the piston, suf- 
ficient to equalize the wear that has taken place, that is, 
one-sixteenth of an inch each time you have to file off a 
sixteenth of an inch. This filling may be some flat pieces 
of tin or sheet copper, commonly called shims, and the 
process is called shimming. As to the front half of the 
box, no shims are required, since the tapering key brings 
that box up to its proper place. 

Great care must be exercised when driving in the 
tapering key or wedge to tighten up the boxes, not to 
drive it in too hard. Many engineers think this is a sure 
remedy for ^'knocking'' in an engine, and every time 
they hear a knock they drive in the crank box key. Often 
the knock is from some other source, such as from a loose 



HOW TO MANAGE AN ENGINE. 79 

fly wheel, or the hke. Your ear is hkely to deceive you ; 
for a knock from any part of an engine is Hkely to sound 
as if it came from the crank box. If you insist on driv- 
ing in the key too hard and too often, you will ruin your 
engine. 

In tightening up a key, first loosen the set screw that 
holds the key; then drive down the key till you think it 
is tight ; then drive it back again, and this time force it 
down with your fist as far as you can. By using your 
fist in this way after 3'ou have once driven the pin in 
tight and loosened it again you may be pretty certain 
you are not going to get it so tight it wall cause the box 
to heat. 

WHAT CAUSES AN ENGINE TO KNOCK. 

The most common sign that something is loose about 
an engine is ''knocking,'' as it is called. If any box wears 
a little loose, or any wheel or the like gets a trifle loose, 
the engine will begin to knock. 

When an engine begins to knock or run hard, it is the 
duty of the engineer to locate the knock definitely. He 
must not guess at it. When he has studied the problem- 
out carefully, and knows where the knock is, then he may 
proceed to remedy it. Never adjust more than one part 
at a time. 

As we have said, a knock is usually due to looseness 
somewhere. The journals of the main shaft may be loose 
and cause knocking. They are held in place by set bolts 
and jam nuts, and are tightened by simply screwing up 
the nuts. But a small turn of a nut may make the box so 
tight it will begin to heat at once. Great care should be 
taken in tightening up such a box to be sure not to get it 
too tight. Once a box begins to cut^ it should be taken 
out and thoroughly cleaned. 

Knocking may be due to a loose eccentric yoke. There 
is packing between the two halves of the yoke, and to 
tighten up you must take out a thin layer of this packing. 
But be careful not to take out too much, or the eccentric 
will stick and begin to slip. 

Another cause of knocking is the piston rod loose in 



8o YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

the cross-head. If the piston rod is keyed to the cross- 
head it is less hable to get loose than if it were fastened 
by a nut ; but if the key continues to get loose, it will be 
best to replace it with a new^ one. 

Unless the piston rod is kept tight in the cross-head, 
there is liability of a bad crack. A small strain will bring 
the piston out of the cross-head entirely, when the chances 
are you will knock out one or both cylinder-heads. If a 
nut is used, there will be the same danger if it comes off. 
It should therefore be carefully watched. The best w^ay 
is to train the ear to catch any usual sound, when loosen- 
ing of the key or nut will be detected at once. 

Another source of knocking is looseness of the cross- 
head in the guides. Provision is usually made for taking 
up the wear ; but if there is not, you can take off the 
guides and file them or have them planed off. You should 
take care to see that they are kept even, so that they will 
wear smooth with the crosshead shoes. 

If the fly-wheel is in the least loose it will also cause 
knocking, and it will puzzle you not a little to locate it. 
It may appear to be tight; but if the key is the least bit 
too narrow for the groove in the shaft, it will cause an en- 
gine to bump horribly, very much as too much ''lead'' 
will. 

LEAD. 

We have already explained what "lead'' is. It is open- 
ing of the port at either end of the steam cylinder allowed 
by the valve when the engine is on a dead centre. To find 
out what the lead is, the cover of the steam chest must be 
taken off, and the engine placed at each dead centre in 
succession. If the lead is greater at one end than it is at 
the other, the valve must be adjusted to equalize it. As a 
rule the engine is adjusted with a suitable amount of lead 
if it is equaHzed. The correct amount of lead varies with 
the engine and with the port opening. If the port opening 
is long and narrow, the lead should obviously be less than 
if the port is short and wide. 

If the lead is insufficient, there will not be enough steam 
let into the cylinder for cushion, and the engine vvill 
knock. If there is too much lead :he speed of the engine 



How TO MANAGE AN ENGINE. 8i 

will be lessened, and it will not do the work it ought. To 
adjust the lead de novo is by no means an easy task. 

HOW TO SET A SIMPLE VALVE. 

In order to set a valve the engine must be brought to 
a dead centre. This cannot be done accurately by the 
eye. An old engineer* gives the following directions for 
finding the dead centre accurately. Says he : ''First pro- 
vide yourself with a 'tram.' This is a rod of one-fourth 
inch iron about eighteen inches long, with two inches at 
one end bent over to a sharp angle. Sharpen both ends 
to a point. Fasten a block of hard w^ood somewdiere near 
the face of the fly-wheel, so that when the straight end 
of your tram is placed at a definite point in the block, the 
hooked end w411 reach the crown of the fly-wheel. The 
block must be held firmly in its place, and the tram must 
always touch it at exactly the same point. 

''You are now ready to set about finding the dead cen- 
tre. In doing this^ remernber to turn the fly-w^heel al- 
ways in the same direction. 

"Bring the engine over till it nearly reaches one of the 
dead centres, but not quite. Make a distinct mark across 
the cross-head and guides. Also go around to the fly- 
w^heel, and placing the straight end of the tram at the 
selected point on the block of wood, make a mark across 
the crown or centre of face of the fly-wheel. Now turn 
your engine past the centre, and on to a point at which 
the mark on the cross head will once more exactly corre- 
spond with the line on the guides, making a single 
straight line. Once more place the tram as before and 
make another mark across the crown of the fly-wheel. By 
use of dividers, find the exact centre betw^een the two 
marks made on the fly-wheel, and mark this point dis- 
tinctly with a centre punch. Now bring the fly-wheel 
to the point where the tram, set wdth its straight end at 
the required point on the block of wood, wall touch this 
point with the hooked end, and you will have one of the 
dead centres. 

*J. H. Maggard. • 



82 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

''Turn the engine over and proceed in the same way to 
find the other dead centre/" 

Now, setting the engine on one of the dead centres, re- 
move the cover of the steam chest and proceed to set 
your valve. 

Assuming that the engine maker gave the valve the 
proper amount of lead in the first place, you can proceed 
on the theory that it is merely necessary to equalize the 
lead at both ends. Assume some convenient lead, as one- 
sixteenth of an inch^ and set the valve to that. Then turn 
the engine over and see if the lead at the other end is the 
same. If it is the same, you have set the valve correctly. 
If it is less at the other end, you may conclude that the 
lead at both ends should be less than one-sixteenth of an 
inch, and must proceed to equalize it. This you can do 
by fitting into the open space a little wedge of wood, 
changing the valve a little until the wedge goes in to just 
the same distance at each end. Then you may know^ that 
the lead at one end is the same as at the other end. You 
can mark the wedge for forcing it against the metal, or 
mark it against the seat of the valve with a pencil. * 

The valve is set by loosening the set screws that hold 
the eccentric on the shaft. When these are loosened up 
the valve may be moved freely. When it is correctly set 
the screws should be tightened, and the relative position 
of the eccentric on the shaft may be permanently marked 
by setting a cold chisel so that it will out into the shaft 
and the eccentric at the same time and giving it a smart 
blow with the hammer, so as to make a mark on both 
the eccentric and the shaft. Should your eccentric slip 
at any time in the future, you can set your valve by sim- 
ply bringing the mark on the eccentric soj that it will 
correspond with the mark on the shaft. Many engines 
have such a mark made when built, to facilitate setting 
a valve should the eccentric become loose. 

These directions apply only to setting the valve of a 
single eccentric engine. 

HOW TO SET A VALVE ON A DOUBLE ECCENTRIC ENGINE. 

In setting a valve on a reversible or double eccentric 
engine, the link may cause confusion, and yon may be 



HOW TO MANAGE AN ENGINE. 83 

tiying to set the valve to run one way when the engine is 
set to run the other. 

The valve on such an engine is exactly the same as on 
a single eccentric engine. Set the reverse lever for the 
engine to go forward. Then set the valve exactly as with 
a single eccentric engine. When you have done so^ tighten 
the eccentric screws so that they will hold temporarily, 
and set the reverse lever for the engine to go backward. 
Then put the engine on dead centres and see if the valve 
is all right at both ends. If it is, you may assume that it 
is correctly set, and tighten eccentric screws, marking both 
eccentrics as before. 

As we have said, most engines are marked in the fac- 
tory, so that it is not a difficult matter tO' set the valves, 
it being necessary only to bring the eccentric around 
so that the mark on it will correspond with the mark on 
the shaft. 

You can easily tell whether the lead is the same at both 
ends by listening to the exhaust. If it is longer at one 
end than the other, the valve is not properly set. 

SLIPPING OF THE ECCENTRIC OR VALVE. 

If the eccentric slips the least bit it may cause the 
engine to stop, or to act very queerly. Therefore the 
marks on the shaft and on the eccentric should be v/atched 
closely, and of course all grease and dirt should be kept 
wiped off, so that they can be seen easily. Then the 
jam nuts should be tightened up a little from time to 
time. 

If the engine seems to act strangely, and yet the eccen- 
trics are all right, look at the valve in the steam chest. 
If the valve stemi has worked loose from the valve, trouble 
v/ill be caused. It may be held in place by a nut, and the 
nut may work off; or the valve may be held by a clamp 
and pin, and the pin may work loose. Either will cause 
loss of motion, and perhaps a sudden stopping of the 
engine. 

USE OF THE CYLINDER STEAM COCKS. 

It is a comparatively simple matter to test a stean\ 
cylinder by use of the cylinder cocks. To do this, opefe 



84 YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE. 

both cocks, place the engine on the forward center, and 
turn on a Httle steam. If the steam blows out at the 
forward cock, we may judge that our lead is all right. 
Now turn the engine to the back center and let on the 
steam. It should blow out the same at the back cock. A 
little training of the ear will show whether the escape of 
steam is the same at both ends. Then reverse the engine, 
set it on each center successfully, and notice whether the 
steam blows out from one cock at a time and in the same 
degree of force. 

If the steam blows out of both cocks at the same time, 
or out of one cock on one center, but not out of the 
other cock on its corresponding center, we may know 
something is wrong. The valve does not work prop- 
erly. 

We will first look at the eccentrics and see that they 
are all right. If they are, we m^ust open the steam chest, 
first turning off all steam. Probably we shall find that 
the valve is loose on the valve rod, if our trouble was 
that the steam blew out of the cock but did not out of 
the other when the engine was on the opposite center. 

If our trouble was that steam blew out of both cocks 
at the same time, we may conclude either that the cylinder 
rings leak or else the valve has cut its seat. It will be 
a little difficult to tell which at first sight. In any case 
it is a bad thing, for it means loss of power and waste of 
steam and fuel. To tell just where the trouble is you 
must take off the cylinder head, after setting. the engine 
on the forward center. Let in a little steam from the 
throttle. If it blows through around the rings, the 
trouble is with them ; but if it blows through the valve 
port, the trouble is with the valve and valve seat. 

If the rings leak you must get a new set if they are of 
the self-adjusting type. But if they are of the spring or 
adjusting type you can set them out yourself; but few 
engines now use the latter kind of rings, so a new pair 
will probably be required. 

If the trouble is in the valve and valve seat, you should 
take the valve out and have the seat planed down, and 
the valve fitted to the seat. This should always be done 



HOW TO MANAGE AN ENGINE. 85 

by a skilled mechanic fully equipped for such work, as a 
novice is almost sure to make bad work of it. The valve 
seat and valve must be scraped down by the use of a flat 
piece of very hard steel, an eighth of an inch thick and 
about 3 by 4 inches in size. The scraping edge must be 
absolutely straight. It will be a slow and tedious process, 
and a little too much scraping on one side or the other 
will prevent a perfect fit. Both valve and valve seat must 
be scraped equally. Novices sometimes try to reseat a 
valve by the use of emery. This is very dangerous and is 
sure to ruin the valve, as it works into the pores of the 
iron and causes cutting. 

LUBRICATION. 

A knowledge of the difference between good oil and 
poor oil, and of how to use oil and grease, is a prime 
essential for an engineer. 

First let us give a little attention to the theory of 
lubrication. The oil or grease should form a lining 
between the journal and its pin or shaft. It is in the 
nature of a slight and frictionless cushion at all points 
where the two pieces of metal meet. 

Now if oil is to keep its place between the bearing 
and the shaft or pin it must stick tight to both pieces of 
metal, and the tighter the better. If the oil is light the 
forces at work on the bearings will force the oil away 
and bring the metals together. As soon as they come 
together they begin to wear on each other, and sometimes 
the wear is very rapid. This is called ''cutting.'' If a 
little sand or grit gets into the bearing, that will help 
the cutting wonderfully, and more especially if there is 
no grease there. 

For instance, gasoline and kerosene are oils, but they 
are so light they will not stick to a journal, and so are 
valueless for lubricating. Good lubricating oil will cost 
a little more than cheap oil which has been mixed with 
worthless oils to increase its bulk without increasing its 
cost. The higher priced oil will really cost less in the 
end, because there is a larger percentage of it which will 



86 YOUNG EXGIXEERS' GUIDE. 

do service. x\ good engineer will have it in his contract 
that he is to be furnished with good oil. 

Now an engine requires two different kinds of oil, one 
for the bearings, such as the crank pin, the cross-head 
and journals, and quite a different kind for lubricating 
the steam cylinder. 

It is extremely important that the steam cylinder should 
be well lubricated; and this cannot be done direct. The 
oil must be carried into the valve and cylinder with steam. 
The heat of the steam, moreover, ranging from about 320 
degrees Fahr. for 90 lbs. pressure to 350 degrees for 
125 lbs. of pressure, will quickly destroy the efficacy of a 
poor oil, and a good cylinder oil must be one that will 
stick to the cylinder and valve seat under this high tem- 
perature. It must have staying qualities. 

The link reverse is one of the best for its purpose ; but 
it requires a good quality of oil on the valve for it to 
work well. If the valve gets a little dry, or the poor oil 
used does not serve its purpose properly, the link will begin 
to jump and pound. This is a reason why makers are 
substituting other kinds of reverse gear in many ways 
not as good, but not open to this objection. If a link 
reverse begins to pound when you are using good oil, and 
the oiler is working properly, you may be sure something 
is the matter with the valve or the gear. 

A good engineer will train his ear so that he will detect 
by simply listening at the cylinder whether everA^thing is 
working exactly as it ought. For example, the exhaust 
at each end of the cylinder, which you can hear dis- 
tinctly, should be the same and equal. If the exhaust 
at one end is less than it is at the other, you may know 
that one end of the cylinder is doing more work than 
the other. And also any little looseness or lack of oil 
will signify itself by the peculiar sound it will cause. 

Wtiile the cylinder requires cylinder oil, the crank, 
cross-head and journals require engine oil, or hard grease. 
The use of hard grease is rapidly increasing, and it is 
highly to be recommended. With a good automatic 
spring grease cup hard grease will be far less likely to 
let the bearings heat than common oil will. At the same 



now TO MANAGE AN ENGINE. 87 

time it will be much easier to keep an engine clean if hard 
j-jrease is used. 

An old engineer"^ gives the following directions for 
fitting a grease cup on a box not previously arranged for 
one: ''Remove the journal, take a gouge and cut a 
clean groove across the box, starting at one corner, about 
one-eighth of an inch from the point of the box, and 
cut diagonally across, coming out at the opposite corner 
on the other end of the box. Then start at the opposite 
corner and run through as before, crossing the first groove 
in the center of the box. Groove both halves of the box 
the same, being careful not to cut out at either end, as 
this will allow the grease to escape from the box and 
cause unnecessary waste. The shimming or packing in 
the box should be cut so as to touch the journal at both 
ends of the box, but not in the center or between these 
two points. So when the top box is brought down tight 
this will form another reservoir for the grease. If the 
box is not tapped directly in the center for the cup, it will 
be necessary to cut another groove from w^here it is 
tapped into the grooves already made. A box prepared 
in this way and carefully polished inside, will require little 
attention if you use good grease.'' 

A HOT BOX. 

When a box heats in the least degree, it is a sign that 
for lack of oil or for some other reason the metals are 
wearing together. 

The first thing to do, of course, is to see that the box is 
supplied w^ith plenty of good oil or grease. 

If this does not cause the box to^ cool off, take it apart 
and clean it thoroughly. Then coat the journal with white 
lead mixed with good oil. Great care should be exercised 
to keep all dirt or grit out of your can of lead and away 
from the bearing. 

Replace the oil or grease cup, and the box wall soon cool 
down. 

*J. H. Maggard. 



88 



YOUNG. ENGINEERS GUIDE. 




W. STEVENS CO. FRICTION 
CLUTCH. 



THE FRICTION CLUTCH. 

Nearly all traction engines are now provided with the 
friction clutch for engaging the engine with the propelling 
gear. The clutch is usually provided with wooden shoes, 

which are adjustable as they 

wear; and tiie clutch is thrown 

on by a lever, conveniently placed. 

Before running an engine, you 

i must make sure that the clutch 

shoes are properly adjusted. 

' Great care must be taken to be 

sure that both shoes wull come in 

contact with the friction wheel 

at the same instant; for if one 

shoe" touches the wheel before 

the other the clutch will probably 

slip. 

The shoes should be so set as to make it a trifle difficult 
to draw the lever clear back. 

To regulate the shoes on the Rumely engine, for exam- 
ple, first throw the friction in. The nut on the top of the 
toggle connecting the sleeve of the friction with the shoe 
must then be loosened, and the nut below the shoe tight- 
ened up, forcing the shoe toward the wheel. Both shoes 
should be carefully adjusted so that they will engage the 
band wheel equally and at exactly the same time. 

To use the friction clutch, first start the engine^ throw- 
ing the throttle gradually wide open. When the engine is 
running at its usual speed, slowly bring up the clutch until 
the gearing is fully engaged, letting the engine start slow- 
ly and smoothly, without any jar. 

Traction engines having the friction clutch are also 
provided with a pin for securing a rigid connection, to be 
used in cases of necessity, as when the clutch gets broken 
or something about it gives out, or you have difficulty in 
making it hold when climbing hills. This pin is a simple 
round or square pin that can be placed through a hole in 
one of the spokes of the band wheel until it comes into a 
similar opening in the friction wheel. When the pin is 
taken out, so as to disconnect the wheels, it must be en- 



HOW TO MANAGE AN ENGINE. 



89 



tirely removed, not left sticking in the hole, as it is liable 
to catch in some other part of the machinery. 

MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 

Be careful not to open the throttle valve too quickly, or 
you may throw off the driving belt. You may also stir up 
the water and cause it to pass over with the steam, 
starting what is called ''priming." 

Always open your cylinder cocks when you stop^ to 




Friction Clutch 

AULTMAN & TAYLOR FRICTION CLUTCH. 

make sure all water has been drained out of the cylinder ; 
and see that they, are open when you start, of course clos- 
ing them as soon as the steam is let in. 

When you pull out the ashes always have a pail of water 
ready, for you may start a fire that will do no end of 
damage. 

If the water in your boiler gets low and you are wait- 



90 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

ing for the tank to come up, don't think you ''can keep 
on a Httle longer/' but stop your engine at once. It is 
better to lose a little time than run the risk of an explo- 
sion that will ruin your reputation as an engineer and 
cause your employer a heavy expense. 

Never start the pump when the water in the boiler is 
low. 

Be sure the exhaust nozzle does not get limed up, and 
be sure the pipe where the water enters the boiler from 
the heater is not limed up, or you may split a heater pipe 
or knock out a check valve. 

Never leave your engine in cold weather without drain- 
ing off all the water; and always cover up your engine 
when you leave it. 

Never disconnect the engine with a leaky throttle. 

Keep the steam pressure steady, not varying more than 
10 to 15 lbs. 

If called on to run an old boiler, have it thoroughly 
tested before vou touch it. 

Always close your damper before pulling through a 
stack yard. 

Examine every bridge before you pull on to it. 

Do not stop going down a steep grade. 



CHAPTER VL 

HANDLING A TRACTION ENGINE ON THE ROAD. 

It is something of a trick to handle a traction engine on 
the road. The novice is almost certain to run it into a 
ditch the first thing, or get stuck on a hill, or in a sand 
patch or a mudhole. Some attention must therefore be 
paid to handling a traction engine on the road. 

In the first place, never pull the throttle open with a 
jerk, nor put down the reverse lever with a snap. Handle 
your engine deliberately and thoughtfully, knowing be- 
forehand just what you wish to do and how you will do it. 
A traction engine is much like an ox; try to goad it on 
too fast and it will stop and turn around on you. It does 
its best work when mpving slowly and steadily^ and sel- 
dom is anything gained by rushing. 

The first thing for an engineer to learn is to handle his 
throttle. When an engine is doing work the throttle 
should be wide open ; but on the road, or in turning, back- 
ing, etc., the engineer's hand must be on the throttle all 
the time and he must exercise a nice judgment as to just 
how much steam the engine will need to^ do a certain 
amount of work. This the novice will find out best by 
opening the throttle slowly, taking all the time he needs, 
and never allowing any one to hurry him. 

As an engineer learns the throttle, he gradually comes 
to have confidence in it. As it were, he feels the pulse of 
the animal and never makes a mistake. Such an engineer 
always has power to spare, and never wastes any power. 
He finds that a little is often much better than too much. 

The next thing to learn is the steering wheel. It has 
tricks of its own, which one must learn by practice. Most 
young engineers turn the wheel altogether too much. If 
you let 3^our engine run slowly you will have time to turn 
the wheel slowly, and accomplish just what you want to 
do. If you hurry you will probably have to do your work 

91 



92 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

all over again, and so lose much more time in the end 
than if you didn't hurry. 

Always keep your eyes on the front wheels of the en- 
gine, and do not turn around to see how your load is com- 
ing on. Your load will take care of itself if you manage 
the front wheels all right, for they determine where you 
are to go. 

In making a hard turn^ especially, go slow. Then you 
will run no chance of losing control of your engine, and 
you can see that neither you nor your load gets into a 
ditch. 

GETTING INTO A HOLE. 

You are sure sooner or later to get into a hole in the 
road, for a traction engine is so heavy it is sure to find 
any soft spot in the road there miay be. 

As to getting out of a hole, observe in the first place 
that you must use your best judgment. 

First, never let the drive wheels turn round without 
doing any work. The more they spin round without 
helping you, the worse it will be for you. 

Your first thought must be to give the drive wheels 
something they can climb on, something they can stick 
to. A heavy chain is perhaps the very best thin j you can 
put under them. But usually on the road you have no 
chain handy. In that case, you must do what you can. Old 
hay or straw will help you ; and so will old rails or an}- 
old timber. 

Spend your time trying to give your wheels something 
to hold to, rather than trying to pull out. When the 
wheels are all right, the engine will go on its way wnth- 
;OUt any trouble whatever. And do not half do your* 
M^ork of fixing the wheels before you try to start. See 
that both wheels are secure before you put on a pound of 
steam. Make sure of this the first time you try, and you 
will save time in the end. If you fix one wheel and don't 
fix the other, you will probably spoil the first wheel by 
starting before the other is ready. 

Should you be where your engine will not turn, then 
you are stuck indeed. You must lighten your load or dig 
a wav out. 



HANDLING ENGINE ON ROAD. 93 



BAD BRIDGES. 

A traction engine is so heavy that the greatest care 
must be exercised in crossing bridges. If a bridge floor 
is worn, if you see rotten planks in it, or HabiHty of 
holes, don't pull on to that bridge without taking pre- 
cautions. 

The best precaution is to carry with you a couple of. 
planks sixteen feet long, three inches thick in the middle, 
tapering to two inches at the ends ; also a couple of planks 
eight feet long and two inches thick, the latter for culverts 
and to help out on long bridges. 

Before pulling on to a bad looking bridge, lay down 
your planks, one for each pair of wheels of the engine 
to run on. Be exceedingly careful not to let the engine 
drop off the edge of these plauks on the way over^ or pass 
over the ends on to the floor of the bridge. If one pair 
of planks is too short, use your second pair. 

Another precaution which it is wise to take is to carry 
fifty feet of good, stout hemp rope, and when you come to 
a shaky bridge, attach your separator to^ the engine by 
this rope at full length, so that the engine will have 
crossed the bridge before the weight of the separator 
comes upon it. 

Cross a bad bridge very slowly. Nothing will be gained 
by hurrying. There should especially be no sudden jerks 
or starts. 

SAND PATCHES. 

A sandy road is an exceedingly hard road to pull a 
load over. 

In the first place, don't hurry over sand. If you do 
you are liable to break the footing of the wheels, and 
then you are gone. 

In the second place, keep your engine as steady and 
straight as possible, so that both wheels will always have 
an equal and even bearing. They are less liable to slip if 
you do. It is useless to try to ''wiggle'' over a sand patch. 
Slow, steady, and even is the rule. 

If your wheels slip in sand, a bundle of straw or hay^ 



-94 YOUNG engineers' guide. 

especially old hay, will be about the best thing to give 
them a footing. 

HILLS. 

In climbing hills take the same advice we have given 
you all along: Go slow\ Nothing is gained by rushing 
at a hill with a steam engine. Such an engine works best 
when its force is applied steadily and evenly, a little at a 
time. 

if you have a friction clutch, as you probably will 
have, you should be sure it is in good working order be- 
fore you attempt to climb hills. It should be adjusted to 
a nicety, as we have already explained. When you come 
to a bad hill it would probably be well to put in the tight 
gear pin ; or use it altogether in a hilly country. 

When the friction clutch first came into use, salesmen 
and others used to make the following recommendation (a 
recommendation which we will say right here is bad). 
They said, when you come to an obstacle in the road that 
you can't very well get your engine over, throw ofif your, 
friction clutch from the road wheels, let your engine get , 
under good headway running free, and then suddenly 
put on the friction clutch and jerk yourself over the ob- 
stacle. 

Now this is no doubt one way to get over an obstacle ; 
but no good engineer would take his chances of spoiling 
his engine by doing any such thing with it. Some part of 
it would be badly strained by such a procedure; and if 
this were done regularly all through a season, an engine 
w^ould be worth verv little at the end of the season. 



CHAPTER VII. 

POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER. 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

THE BOILER. 

Q. How should water be fed to a boiler? 

A. In a steady stream, by use of a pump or injector 
working continuously and supplying just the amount of 
water required. By this means the water in the boiler 
is maintained at a uniform level^ and produces steam most 
evenly and perfectly. 

Q. Why should pure water be used in a boiler ? 

A. Because impure water, or hard water, forms scales 
on the boiler flues and plates, and these scales act as non- 
conductors of heat. Thus the heat of the furnace is not 
able to pass easily through the boiler flues and plates to 
the water, and your boiler becom.es what is called "a 
hard steamer.'' 

Q. What must be done to prevent the formation of 
scale ? 

A. First, use some compound that will either prevent 
scale from forming, or will precipitate the scale forming 
substance as a soft powder that can easily be washed off. 
Sal soda dissolved in the feed water is recommended, but 
great care should be exercised in the use of sal soda not 
to use too much at a time, as it may cause a boiler to 
foam. Besides using a compound, clean your boiler often 
and regularly with a hand hose and a force pump, and 
soak it out as often as possible by using rain water for 
a day or two, especially before cleaning. Rain v/ater will 
soften and bring down the hard scale far better than any 
compound. 

Q. How often should you clean your boiler? 

A. As often as it needs it, which will depend upon the 
work you do and the condition of the water. Once a 

95 



96 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

week is usually often enough if the boiler is blown down 
a little every day. If your water is fairly good, once a 
month will be often enough. A boiler should be blown 
off about one gauge at a time two or three times a day 
with the blow-off if the water is muddy. 

Q. How long should the surface blow-off be left 
open ? 

A. Only for a few seconds, and seldom longer than 
a minute. The surface blow-off carries off the scum that 
forms on the water^ and other impurities that rise with 
the scum. 

Q. How do you clean a boiler by blowing oft'? 

A. When the pressure has been allowed to run down 
open the blow-off valve at the bottom of the boiler and let 
the water blow out less than a minute, till the water drops 
out of sight in the water gauges, or about two and one- 
half inches. Blown off more is onlv a waste of heat and 
fuel. 

Q. What harm will be done by blowing off a boiler 
under a high pressure of steam? 

A. The heat in the boiler while there is such a pres- 
sure will be so great that it will bake the scale on the 
inside of the boiler, and it will be very difficult to remove 
it afterward. After a boiler has been blown off. the scale 
should be for the most part soft, so that it can be washed 
out by a hose and force pump. 

Q. Why should *a hot boiler never be filled with cold 
water ? 

A. Because the cold water will cause the boiler to 
contract more in some places than in others, and sO' sud- 
denly that the whole will be badly strained. Leaky flues 
are made in this way, and the life of a boiler greatly 
shortened. As a. rule a boiler should be filled only when 
the metal and the water put into it are about at the same 
temperature. 

Q. After a boiler has been cleaned, how should the 
manhole and manhole plates be replaced ? 

A. They are held in position by a bolt passing through 
a yoke that straddles the hole ; but to be steam and water 
tight they must have packing^ all around the junction of 
the plate with the boiler. The best packing is sheet rub- 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. 97 

ber cut in the form of a ring just the right size for the 
bearing surface. Hemp or cotton packing are also used, 
but they should be free from all lumps and soaked in oil 
Do not use any more than is absolutely needed. Be care- 
ful, also, to see that the bearings of the plate and boiler 
are clean and smooth, with all the old packing scraped 
off. Candle wick saturated with red lead is next best to 
rubber as packing. 

Q. \Miat are the chief duties of an engineer in care 
of a boiler? 

A. First, to watch all gauges, fittings, and working 
parts^ tO' see that they are in order ; try the gauge cocks 
to miake sure the water is at the right height; try the 
safety valve from time to time to be sure it is working; 
see that there are no leaks, that there is no rusting or 
wearing of parts, or to replace parts when they do begin 
to show wear; to examine the check valve frequently to 
make sure no water can escape through it from the 
boiler ; take precautions against scale and stoppage of 
pipes by scale ; and keep the fire going uniformly, clean- 
ly, and in an economical fashion. 

Q. What should you do if the glass water gauge 
breaks ? 

A. Turn off the gauge cocks above and below, the 
lower one first so that the hot water will not burn you. 
You may put in a new glass and turn on gauge cocks at 
once. Turn on the lower or water cock first, then the 
upper or steam cock. You may go on without the glass 
gauge, however, using the gauge cocks or try cocks every 
few minutes to make sure the water is at the right height, 
neither too high nor too low. 

Q. Why is it necessary to use the gauge cocks when 
the glass gauge is all right? 

A. First, because you cannot otherwise be sure that 
the glass gauge is all right; and, secondly, because if 
you do not use them frequently they are likely to become 
scaled up so that you cannot use them in case of accident 
to the glass gauge. 

Q. If a gauge cock gets leaky, what should be done? 

A. Nothing until the boiler has cooled down. Then if 
the lepjc is in the seat, take it out and grind and refit it ; 



9o YOUNG ENGINEERS GUtM. 

if the leak is where the cock is screwed into the boiler, 
tighten it up another turn and see if that remedies the 
difficulty. If it does not you will probably have to get a 
new gauge cock. 

Q. Why not screw up a gauge cock while there is a 
pressure of steam on? 

A. The cock might blow out and cause serious injury 
to yourself or some one else. Make it a rule never to fool 
with any boiler fittings while there is a pressure of steam 
on the boiler. It is exceedingly dangerous. 

Sometimes a gauge cock gets broken oflf accidentally 
while the boiler is in use. If such an accident happens, 
bank the fire by closing the draft and covering the fire 
with fresh fuel or ashes. Stop the engine and let the 
water blow out of the hole till only steam appears ; then 
try to plug the opening with a long whitewood or poplar, 
or even a pine stick (six or eight feet long)^ one end of 
which you have whittled down to about the size of the 
hole. When the steam has been stopped the stick may 
be cut off close to the boiler and the plug driven in tight. 
If necessary you may continue to use the boiler in this 
condition until a new cock can be put in. 

Q. What should you do w^hen a gauge cock is 
stopped up? 

A. Let the steam pressure go down, and then take 
off the front part and run a small wire into the passage, 
working the wire back and forth until all scale and 
sediment has been removed. 

Q. What should you do when the steam gauge gets 
out of order. 

A. If the steam gauge does not work correctly, or 
you suspect it does not, you may test it by running 
the steam up until it blows off at the safety valve. 
If the steam gauge does not indicate the pressure at 
which the safety valve is set to pop off, and you have 
reason to suppose the safety valve is all right, you may 
conclude that there is something the matter with the 
steam gauge. In that case either put in a new one, or, 
if you have no extra steam gauge on hand, shut down 
your boiler and engine till you can get your steam gauge 



I^OlNTS FOk VOUNG ENOiNElik. (J(J 

repaired. Sometimes this can be done simply by adjust- 
ing the pointer, which may have got loose, and you can 
test it by attaching it to another boiler which has a steam 
gauge that is all right and by which you can check up 
yours. It is VERY DANGEROUS to run your boiler 
without a steam gauge, depending on the safety valve. 
Never allow the slightest variation in correctness of the 
steam gauge without repairing it at once. It will nearly 
always be cheaper in these days to put in a new gauge 
rather than try to repair the old one. 

Q. What should you do if the pump fails to work? 

A. Use the injector. 

Q. What should you do if there is no injector? 

A. Stop the engine at once and bank the fire with 
damp ashes, especially noting that the water does not 
fall below the bottom of the glass gauge. Then examine 
the pump. First see if the plunger leaks air; if it is all 
right, examine the check valves, using the little drain 
cock as previously explained to test the upper ones, for 
the valves may have become worn and will leak; third, 
if the check valves are all right, examine the supply pipe, 
looking at the strainer, observing whether suction takes 
place when the pump is worked, etc. There may be a 
leak in the suction hose somewhere during its course 
where air can get in, or it may become weak and col- 
lapse under the force of the atmosphere, or the lining 
of the suction pipe may have become torn or loose. The 
slightest leak in the suction pipe will spoil the working 
of the pump. Old tubing should never be used, as it 
is sure to give trouble. Finally, examine the delivery 
pipe. Close the cock or valve next the boiler, and exam- 
ine the boiler check valve; notice whether the pipe is 
getting limed up. If necessary, disconnect the pipe and 
clean it out with a stiff wire. If everything is all right 
up to this point, you must let the boiler cool off, blow 
out the water, disconnect the pipe between the check 
and the boiler, and thoroughly clean the delivery pipe 
into the boiler. Stoppage of the delivery pipe is due to 
deposits of lime from the heating of the water in the 
heater. Stoppage from this source will be gradual, and 



100 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

you will find less and less water going into your boiler 
from your pump until none flows at all. From this you 
may guess the trouble. 

Q. How may the communication with the water gauge 
always be kept free from lime? 

A. By blowing it off through the drain cock at the 
bottom. First close the upper cock and blow off for a 
few seconds, the water passing through the lower cock ; 
then close the lower cock and open the upper one, allow- 
ing the steam to blow through this and the drain cock 
for a few seconds. If you do this every day or oftener 
you will have no trouble. 

O. Should the water get low for any reason, w^hat 
should be done? 

A. Close all dampers tight so as to prevent all draft, 
and bank the fire with fresh fuel or with ashes (damp 
ashes are the best if danger is great). Then let the 
boiler cool down before putting in fresh water. Banking 
the fire is better than drawing or dumping it, as either 
of these make the heat greater for a moment or two, 
and that additional heat might cause an explosion. Dash- 
ing cold water upon the fire is also very dangerous and 
in every way unwise. Again, do not open the safety 
valve, for that also, by relieving some of the pressure 
on the superheated w^ater, might cause it to burst sud- 
denly into steam and so cause an explosion. 

O. Under such circumstances, v^ould you stop the 
engine ? 

A. No ; for a sudden checking of the outflow of steam 
might bring about an explosion. Do nothing but check 
the heat as quickly and effectively as you can by banking 
or covering the fires. 

Q. Why not turn on the feed water? 

A. Because the crowm sheet of the boiler has become 
overheated, and any cold water coming upon it would 
cause an explosion. If the pump or injector are running, 
of course you may let them run, and the boiler will 
gradually refill as the heat decreases. Under such cir- 
cumstances low water is due to overheating the boiler. 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. lOI 

Q. Would not the fusible plug avert any disaster from 
low water? 

A. It might, and it might not. The top of it is liable 
to get coated with lime so that the device is worthless. 
You should act at all times precisely as if there were no 
fusible plug. If it ever does avert an explosion you 
may be thankful, but averting explosions by taking such 
means as we have suggested will be far better for an 
engineer's reputation. 

Q. Would not the safety valve be a safeguard against 
explosion ? 

A. No; only under certain conditions. It prevents 
too high a pressure for accumulating in the boiler when 
there is plenty of w^ater ; but when the w^ater gets low 
the safety valve may only hasten the explosion by reliev- 
ing some of the pressure and allov/ing superheated water 
to burst suddenly into steam, thus vastly expanding in- 
stantly. 

O. Should water be allowed to stand in the boiler 
when it is not in use? 

A. It is better to draw it off and clean the boiler, to 
prevent rusting, formation of scale, hardening of sedi- 
ment, etc., if boiler is to be left for any great length of 
time. 

Q. What should you do if a grate bar breaks or falls 
out ? 

A. You should always have a spare grate bar on hand 
to put in its place; but if you have none you may fill the 
space by wedging in a stick of hard wood cut the right 
shape to fill the opening. Cover this wood with ashes 
be-fore poking the fire over it, and it will last for sever?;! 
hours before it burns out. You will find it exceedingly 
difficult to keep up th^; fire with a big hole in the grate 
thjit will let cold air into the furnace and allow coal to 
drop down. 

In case the grate is of the rocker type the opening 
may be filled by shaping a piece of flat iron, which can 
be set in without interfering with the rocking of the 
grate ; or the opening may be filled with wood as before 
if the wood is covered well with ashes. Of course the 



102 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

use of wood will prevent the grate from rocking and the 
poker must be used to clean. 

Q. Why should an engineer never start a boiler with 
a hot fire, and never let his fire get hotter than is needed 
to keep up steam? 

A. Both will cause the sheets to warp and the flues 
to become leaky, because under high heat some parts of 
the boiler will expand more rapidly than others. For a 
similar reason, any sudden application of cold to a boiler, 
either cold water or cold air through the firebox door, 
will cause quicker contraction of certain parts than other 
parts, and this will ruin a boiler. 

Q. How should you supply a boiler with water? 

A. In a regular stream continually. Only by making 
the water pass regularly and gradually through the 
heater will you get the full effect of the heat from the 
exhaust steam. If a great deal of water is pumped into 
the boiler at one time, the exhaust steam will not be suf- 
ficient to heat it as it ought. Then if you have a full 
boiler and shut off the water supply, the exhaust steam 
in the heater is wasted, for it can do no work at all. Be- 
sides,- it hurts the boiler to allow the temperature to 
change, as it will inevitably do if water is supplied irreg- 
ularly. 

WHATEVER YOU DO, NEVER ATTEMPT TO 
TIGHTEN A SCREW OR CALK A BOILER 
UNDER STEAM PRESSURE. IF ANYTHING IS 
LOOSE IT IS LIABLE TO BLOW OUT IN YOUR 
FACE WITH DISASTROUS CONSEQUENCES. 

Q. If boiler flues become leaky, can an ordinary per- 
son tighten them? 

A. Yes, if the work is done carefully. See full ex- 
planation previously given, p. 17. Great care should be 
taken not to expand the flues too much, for by so doing 
you are likely to loosen other flues and cause more leaks 
than you had in the first place. Small leaks inside a 
boiler are not particularly dangerous, but they should 
be remedied at the earliest possible moment, since ther 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. IO3 

reduce the power of the boiler and put out the fire. Be- 
sides, they look bad for the engineer. 

Q. How should flues be cleaned? 

A. Some use a steam blow^er ; but a better way is 
to scrape off the metal with one of the many patent 
scrapers, which just fill the flue, and when attached to 
a rod and worked back and forth a few times the whole 
length of the flue do admirable service. 

Q. What harm will dirty flues do ? 

A. Two difficulties arise from dirty flues. If they 
become reduced in size the flre will not burn well. Then, 
the same amount of heat will do far less work because it 
is so much harder for it to get through the layer of soot 
and ashes, which are non-conductors. 

Q. What would you do if the throttle broke ? 

A, Use reverse lever, 



CHAPTER VIII. 

^OINTS FOR THE YOUXG EXGIXEER. (CONT.) 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 

THE ENGINE. 

Q. What is the first thing to do with a new engine? 

A. With some cotton waste or a soft rag saturated 
with benzine or turpentine clean off all the bright work ; 
then clean every bearing, box and oil hole, using a force 
pump with air current first, if you have a pump, and 
then wiping the inside out clean with an oily rag, using 
a wire if necessary to make the work thorough. If you 
do not clean the working parts of the engine thus before 
setting it up, grit will get into the bearings and cause 
them to cut. Parts that have been put together need not 
be taken apart ; but you should clean everything you can 
get at, especially' the oil holes and other places that may 
receive dirt during transportation. 

After the oil holes have been well cleaned, the oil cups 
may be wiped off and put in place, screwing them in with 
a wrench. 

Q. What kind of oil should you use? 

A. Cylinder oil only for the cylinder ; lard oil for the 
bearings, and hard grease if your engine is provided 
with hard grease cup for the cross-head and crank. The 
only good substitute for cylinder oil is pure beef suet 
tried out. ^Merchantable tallow should never be used, as 
it contains acid. 

O. Can fittings be screwed on by hand only? 

A. No ; all fittings should be scrcAved up tight with 
a wrench. 

O. AMien all fittings are in place, what must be done 
before the engine can be started? 

A. See that the grates in the fi^rebox are in place and 
all right ; then fill the boiler with clean water until it 

104 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. IO5 

shows an inch to an inch and a half in the water gauge. 
Start your fire, and let it burn slowly until there is a 
pressure in the boiler of lo or 15 lbs. Then you can turn 
on the blower to get up draft. In the meantime fill all 
the oil cups with oil; put grease on the gears ; open and 
close all cocks to see that they w^ork all right; turn your 
engine over a few times to see that it works all right; 
let a little steam into the cylinder with both cylinder 
cocks open — just enough to show at the cocks without 
moving the engine — and slowly turn the engine over, 
stopping it on the dead centers to see if the steam comes 
from only one of the cyHnder cocks at a time, and that 
the proper one; reverse the engine and make the same 
test. Also see that the cyHnder oiler is m place and ready 
for operation. See that the pump is all right and in 
place, with the valve in the feedpipe open and also the 
valve in the supply pipe. 

By going over the engine in this w^ay you will notice 
whether everything is tight and in working order, and 
whether you have failed to notice any part which you do 
not understand. If there is any part or fitting you do 
not understand, know all about it before you go ahead. 

Having started your fire with dry wood, add fuel grad- 
ually, a little at a time, until you have a fire covering 
every part of the grate. Regulate the fire by the damper 
alone, never opening the firebox door even if the fire 
gets too hot. 

Q. In what way should the engine be started? 

A. When you have from 25 to 40 lbs. of pressure 
open the throttle valve a little, allowing the cylinder 
cocks to be open also. Some steam will condense at first 
in the cold cyHnder, and this water must be allowed to 
drain ofif. See that the crank is not on a dead center, 
and put on just enough steam to start the engine. As 
soon as it gets warmed up, and only dry steam appears 
at the cocks, close the cylinder cocks, open the throttle 
gradually till it is wide open, and wait for the engine to 
work up to its fuH speed. 

Q. How is the speed of the engine regulated?? 

A. By the governor, which is operated by a belt run- 



I06 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

ning to the main shaft. The governor is a dehcate ap- 
paratus, and should be watched closely. It should move 
up and down freely on the stem, which should not 
leak steam. If it doesn't work steadily, you should stop 
the engine and adjust it, after watching it for a minute or 
two to see just where the difficulty lies. 

Q. Are you likely to have any. hot boxes ? 

A. There should be none if the bearings are all clean 
and well supplied with oil. However, in starting a new 
engine you should stop now and then and examine 
every bearing by laying your hand upon it. Remember 
the eccentric^ the link pin, the cross-head, the crank pin. 
If there is any heat, loosen the boxes up a trifle, but 
only a very little at a time. If you notice any knocking 
or pounding, you have loosened too much, and should 
tighten again. 

Q. What must you do in regard to water supply? 

A. After the engine is started and you know it is all 
right, fill the tank on the engine and start the injector. 
It may take some patience to get the injector started, and 
you should carefully follow the directions previously 
given and those which apply especially to the type of 
injector used. Especially be sure that the cocks admit- 
ting the water through the feed pipe and into the boiler 
are open.' 

Q. Why are both a pump and an injector required 
on an engine ? 

A. The pump is most economical, because it permits 
the heat in the exhaust steam to be used to heat the feed 
water, while the injector heats the water by live steam. 
There should also be an injector, however, for use when 
the engine is not working, in order that the water in 
the boiler may be kept up with heated water. If a cross- 
head pump is used, of course, it will not operate when 
the engine is not running ; and in case of an independent 
pump the heater will not heat the water when the engine 
is not running because there is little or no exhaust steam 
available. There is an independent pump (the Marsh 
pump) which heats the water 'before it goes into the 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. IO7 

boiler, and this may be used when the engine is shut 
down instead of the injector. 

Q. What is the next thing to test? 

A. The reversing mechanism. ' Throw the reverse 
lever back, and see if the engine will run equally well in 
the opposite direction. Repeat this a few times to make 
sure that the reverse is in good order. 

Q. How is a traction engine set going upon the road? 

A. Most traction engines now have the friction clutch. 
When the engine is going at full speed, take hold of the 
clutch lever and slowly bring the clutch against the band 
wheel. It will slip a little at first, gradually engaging 
the gears and moving the outfit. Hold the clutch lever 
in one hand, while with the other you operate the steering 
wheel. By keeping your hand on the clutch lever you 
may stop forward motion instantly if anything goes 
wrong. When the engine is once upon the road, the 
clutch lever may set in the notch provided for it, and 
the engine will go at full speed. You can then give your 
entire attention to steering. 

Q. What should you do if the engine has no friction 
clutch ? 

A. Stop the engine, placing the reversing lever in the 
center notch. Then slide the spur pinion into the gear 
and open the throttle valve wide. You are now ready to 
control the engine by the reversing lever. Throw the 
lever forward a little, bringing it back, and so continue 
until you have got the engine started gradually. When 
well under vx^ay throw the reverse lever into the last 
notch, and give your attention to steering. 

Q. How should you steer a traction engine ? 

A. In all cases the same man should handle the throt- 
tle and steer the engine. Skill in steering comes by prac- 
tice, and about the only rule that can be given is to go 
slow, and under no circumstances jerk you" engine about. 
Good steering depends a great deal on natural ability to 
judge distances by the eye and power b}' the feel. A 
good engineer must have a good eye, a good ear, and 
a good touch (if we may so speak"^ If either is wanting, 
success will be uncertain, 



I08 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

Q. How should an engine be handled on the road? 

A. There will be no special difficulty in handling an 
engine on a straight, level piece of road, especially if the 
road is hard and without holes. But when you come t© 
your first hill your troubles will begin. 

Before ascending a hill, see that the water in the 
boiler does not stand more than two inches in the glass 
gauge. If there is too much water, as it is thrown to 
one end of the engine by the grade it is liable to get 
into the steam cylinder. If you have too much water, 
blow off a little from the bottom blow-off cock. 

In descending a hill never stop your engine for a mo- 
ment, since your crown sheet will be uncovered by rea- 
son of the water being thrown forward, and any cessa- 
tion in the jolting of the engine wdiich keeps the water 
flowing over the crown sheet will cause the fusible plug 
to blow out, making delay and expense. 

Make it a point never to stop your engine except on 
the level. 

Before descending a hill, shut off the steam at the 
throttle, and control the engine by the friction brake ; or 
if there is no brake, do not quite close the throttle, but 
set the reverse lever in the center notch, or back far 
enough tO' control the speed. It is seldom necessary 
to use steam in going down hill, however, and if the 
throttle is closed even with no friction brake, the re- 
verse may be used in such a way as to form an air brake 
in the cylinder. 

Get down to the bottom of a, hill as quickly as you 
can. 

Before descending a hill it w^ould be well to close your 
dampers and keep the firebox door closed tight all the 
time. Cover the fire with fresh fuel so as to keep the 
heat dov/n. 

The pump or injector must be kept at work, however, 
since as you have let the water down low, you must not 
let it fall any lower or you are likely to have trouble. 

In ascending a hill, do just the reverse, namely : Keep 
your fire brisk and hot, with steam pressure ascending; 
and throw the reverse lever in the last notch, giving the 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. I09 

engine all the steam you can, else you may get stuck. If 
you stop you are likely to overheat forward end of fire 
tubes. You are less liable to get stuck if you go slowly 
than if you go fast. Regulate speed by friction clutch. 



CHAPTER IX. 

POINTS FOR THE YOUNG ENGINEER. (CONT.) 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Q. What is Foaming? 

A. The word is used to describe the rising of water 
in large bubbles or foam. You will detect it by noticing 
that the water in the glass gauge rises and falls, or is 
foamy. It is due to sediment in the boiler, or grease 
and other impurities in the feed supply. Shaking up the 
boiler will start foaming sometimes ; at other times it will 
start without apparent cause. In such cases it is due to 
the steam trying to get through a thick crust on the sur- 
face of the water. 

Q. How may you prevent foaming? 

A. It may be checked for a moment by turning off 
the throttle, so giving the water a chance to settle. It is 
generally prevented by frequently using the surface blow- 
off to clear away the scum. Of course the water must be 
kept as pure as possible, and especially should alkali 
water be avoided. 

Q. What is priming? 

A. Priming is not the same as foaming, though it is 
often caused by foaming. Priming is the carrying of 
water into the steam cylinder with the steam. It is 
caused by various things beside foaming, for it may be 
found when the boiler is quite clean. A sudden and very 
hot fire may start priming. Priming sometimes follows 
lowering of the steam pressure. Often it is due to lack of 
capacity in the boiler, especially lack of steam space, or 
lack of good circulation. 

Q. How can you detect priming? 

A. By the clicking sound it m.akes in the steam cyl- 
inder. The water in the gauge will also go up and down 
violently. There will also be a shower of water from the 
exhaust. 

no 



POINTS FOR YOUNG i-:nc;inki:u. hi 

O. What is the proper remedy for priming? 

A. If it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler nothing 
can be done but get a new boiler. In other cases it may 
be remedied by carrying less water in the boiler when 
that can be done safely, by taking steam from a different 
point in the steam dome, or if there is no dome by using 
a long dry pipe with perforation at the end. 

A larger steam pipe may help it ; or it may be remedied 
by taking out the top row of flues. 1 

Leaky cylinder rings or a leaky valve m.ay also have 
something' to do with it. In all cases these should be 
made steam tight. If the exhaust nozzle is choked up 
with grease or sediment, clean it out. 

A traction engine w^ith small steam ports would prime 
quickly under forced speed. 

Q. How would you bank your fires? 

A. Push the fire as far to the back of the firebox as 
possible and cover it over with very fine coal or with dry 
ashes. As large a portion as possible of the grate should 
be left open, so that the air may pass over the fire. Close 
the damper tight. By banking your fires at night you 
keep the boiler warm and can get up steam more quickly 
in the morning. 

O. When water is left in the boiler with banked fire 
in cold weather, what precautions ought to be taken ? 

A. The cocks in the glass water gauge should be 
closed and the drain cock at the bottom opened, for fear 
the water in the exposed gauge should freeze. Likewise 
all drain cocks in steam cylinder and pump should be 
opened. 

Q. How should a traction engine be prepared for 
laying up during the winter? 

A. First, the outside of the boiler and engine should 
be thoroughly cleaned, seeing that all gummy oil or 
grease is removed. Then give the outside of the boiler 
and smokestack a coat of asphalt paint, or a coat of 
lampblack and linseed oil, or at any rate a doping of 
grease. 

The outside of the boiler should be cleaned while it is 
hot, so that grease, etc., may be easily removed while 
soft. 



112 VOL'XG engineers' GLIDE. 

x\fter the outside has been attended to, blow out the 
water at low pressure and thoroughly clean the inside 
in the usual way,, taking out the handhole and manhole 
plates, and scraping off all scale and sediment. 

After the boiler has been cleaned on the inside, fill it 
nearly full of w^ater, and pour upon the top a bucket of 
black oil. Then let the water out through the blow-off 
at the bottom. As the water goes down it will have a 
coating of oil down the sides of the boiler. 

All the brass fittings should be removed, including 
gauge cocks, check valves, safety valve, etc. Disconnect 
all pipes that may contain w^ater, to be sure none re- 
mains in any of them. Open all stuffing boxes and take 
out packing, for the packing will cause the parts they 
surround to rust. 

Finally, clean out the inside of the firebox and the 
fire flues, and give the ash-pan a good coat of paint all 
over, inside as well as out. 

The inside of the cylinder should be well greased, 
which can be done by removing the cylinder head. 

See that the top of the smoke stack !s covered to keep 
out the w^eather. 

All brass fittings should be carefully packed and put 
aw^ay in a dry place. 

A little attention to the engine when you put it up 
will save twdce as much time wdien you take it out next 
season, and besides save many dollars of value in the 
life of the engine. 

Q. How^ should belting be cared for? 

A. First, keep belts free from dust and dirt. 

Never overload belts. 

Do not let oil or grease drip upon them. 

Never put any sticky or pasty grease on a belt. 

Never allow any animal oil or grease to touch a rub- 
ber belt, since it wall destroy the life of the rubber. 

The grain or hair side should run next the pulley, as 
it holds better and is not so likely to slip. 

Rubber belts will be greatly improved if they are cov- 
ered w^ith a mixture of black lead and litharge, equal 
parts, mixed with boiled oil, and just enough japan to 



POINTS FOR YOUNG ENGINEER. II3 

dry them quickly. This mixture will do to put on places 
that peel. 

O. What is the proper way to lace a belt? 

A. First, square the ends with a proper square, cut- 
ting them off to a nicety. Begin to lace in the middle, 
and do not cross the laces on the pulley side. On that 
side the lacings should run straight with the length of 
the belt. 

The holes in the belt should be punched if possible with 
an oval punch, the long diameter coinciding with the 
length of the belt. Make two rows of holes in each end 
of the belt^ so that the holes in each row will alternate 
with those in preceding row, making a zigzag. Four 
holes will be required for a three-inch belt in each end, 
two holes in each row ; in a six-inch belt^ place seven 
holes in each end, four in the row nearest the end. 

To find the length of a belt w^hen the exact length can- 
not be measured conveniently, measure a straight line from^ 
the center of one pulley to the center of the other. Add 
together half the diameter of each pulley, and multiply 
that by 3>4 (3-i4i6). The result added to twice the 
distance between the centers wnll give the total length of 
the belt. 

A belt will w^ork best if it is allowed to sag just a 
trifle. 

The seam side of a rubber belt should be placed out- 
ward, or away from the pulley. 

If such a belt slips, coat the inside with boiled linseed 
oil or soap. 

Cotton belting may be preserved by painting the pulley 
side while running with common paint, afterward 'apply- 
ing soft oil or grease. 

If a belt slips apply a little oil or soap to the pulley 
side. 

O. How does the capacity of belts vary? 

A. In proportion to width and also to the speed. 
Double the width and you double the capacity; also, 
within a certain limit, double the speed and you double 
the capacity. A belt should not be run over 5,000 feet 
per minute. One four-inch belt will have the same capac- 
itv as two two-inch belts. 



114 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

0. How are piston rods and valve rods packed so 
that the steam cannot escape around them? 

A. By packing placed in stuffing-boxes. The stuf- 
fing is of some nuaterial that has a certain amount of 
elasticity, such as lamp wick, hemp, soap stone, etc., and 
certain patent preparations. The packing is held in place 
by a gland^ as it is called, which acts to tighten the pack- 
ing as the cap of the stuffing-box Is screwed up. 

Q. How would you repack a stuffing-box ? 

A. First remove the cap and the gland, and with a 
proper tool take out all the old packing. Do not use any 
rough instrument like a file, which is liable to scratch the 
rod, for any injury to the smooth surface of the rod, 
will make it leak steam or work hard. 

If patent packing is used, cut ofif a sufficient number 
of lengths to make the required rings. They should be 
exactly the right length to go around inside the stuffing- 
box. If too long, they cannot be screwed up tight, as the 
ends will press together and cause irregularities. If too 
short, the ends will not meet and will leak steam. Cut 
the ends diagonally so that they will make a lap joint in- 
stead of a square one. When the stuffing-box has been 
filled, place the gland in position and screw up tight. 
Afterwards loosen the nuts a trifle, as the steam will 
cause the packing to expand, usually. The stuffing-box 
should be just as loose as it can be and not allow leakage 
of steam. If steaml leaks, screw up the box a little 
tighter. If it still leaks,. do' not screw up as tight as you 
possibly can. but repack the box. If the stuffing-box is 
too tight, either for the piston rod or valve steam, it will 
cause the engine to work hard, and may groove the rods 
and spoil them. 

If hemp packing is used, pull the fibres out straight 
and free, getting rid of all knots and lumps. Twist to- 
gether a few of the fibres, making three cords, and braid 
these three cords together and soak them with oil or 
grease, wind around the rod till stuffing-box is sufficiently 
full, replace the gland, and screw up as before. 

Stuffing-box for water piston of pump may be packed 
as described above, but little oil or grease will be needed. 



rOtXTS FOR YOUNG EXGIXKKR. . li^ 

Never pack the stuffing-box too tight, or you may flute 
the rod and spoil it. 

Always keep the packing in a clean place^ well covered 
up, never allowing any dust to get into it, for the dust 
or grit is liable to cut the rod. 



CHAPTER X. 

ECONOMY IN RUNNING A FARM ENGINE. 

It is something to be able to run a farm engine and 
keep out of trouble. It is even a great deal if every- 
thing runs smoothly day in and day out^ if the engine 
looks clean, and you can always develop the amount of 
power you need. You must be able to do this before you 
can give the fine points of engineering much considera- 
tion. 

When you come to the point where you are always able 
to keep out of trouble, you are probably ready to learn 
how you can make your engine do more .work on less 
fuel than it does at present. In that direction the best 
of us have an infinite amount to learn. It is a fact that 
in an ordinary farm engine only about 4 per cent of the 
coal energ}^ is actually saved and used for work ; the rest 
is lost, partly in the boiler, more largely in the engine. 
So we see what a splendid chance there is to save. 

If we are asked where all the lost energy goes to, we 
might reply in a general sort of way, a good deal goes 
up the smokestack in smoke or unused fuel ; some is ra- 
diated from the boiler in the form of heat and is lost 
without producing any efifect on the steam within the 
boiler; somie is lost in the cooling of the steam as it 
passes to the steam cylinder; some is lost in the cooling 
of the cylinder itself after each stroke; some is lost 
through the pressure on the back of the steam valve, 
causing a friction that requires a good deal of energy 
in the engine to overcome ; some is lost in friction in the 
bearings, stuffing-boxes, etc. At each of these points 
economy may be practiced if the engineer knows how to 
do it. We offer a few suggestions. 

THEORY OF STEAM POWER. 

As economy is a scientific question, we cannot study 
it intelligentlv without knowing something of the theory 

116 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. II7 

of heat, steam and the transmission of power. There 
will be nothing technical in the following pages ; and as 
soon as the theory is explained in simple language, any 
intelligent person will know for himself just what he 
ought to do in any given case. 

First, let us define or describe heat according to the 
scientific theory. Scientists suppose that all matter is 
made up of small particles called molecules, sO' small that 
they have never been seen. Each molecule is made up of 
still smaller particles called atoms. There is nothing 
smaller than an atom^ and there are only about sixty-five 
different kinds of atoms, w^hich are called elements ; or 
rather, any substance made up of only one kind of atom 
is called an element. Thus iron is an element, and so is 
zinc, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. But a substance like water 
IS not an element, but a compound, since its molecules are 
made up of an atom of oxygen united with two atoms of 
hydrogen. Wood is made up of many different kinds of 
atoms united in various ways. Air is not a compound, 
but a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and a few other sub- 
stances in small quantities. 

The reason why air is a mixture and not a compound 
is an interesting one, and brings us to our next point. 
In order tO' formi a compound, two different kinds of 
atoms must have an attraction for each other. There 15 
no attraction between oxygen and nitrogen; but there is 
great attraction between oxygen and carbon, and when 
they get a chance they rush together like long separated 
overs. Anthracite coal is almost pure carbon. So is char- 
coal. Soft coal consists of carbon with which various 
other things are united, one of them being hydrogen. 
This is interesting and important^ because it accounts for 
a curious thing in firing up boilers with soft coal. We 
have already said that water is oxygen united with hydro- 
gen. When soft coal burns, not only does the carbon 
unite with oxygen, but the hydrogen unites with oxygen 
and forms water, or steam. While the boilers are cold 
they will condense the water or steam in the smoke, just 
as a cold plate in a steamy room will condense water from 
the steamy air, so sweating. 

Now the scientists suppose that two or three atoms 



Il8 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

Stick together by reason of their attraction for each other 
and form molecules. These molecules in turn stick to- 
gether and form liquids and solids. The tighter they 
stick, the harder the substance. At the same time, these 
molecules are more or less loose, and are constantly mov- 
ing back and forth. In a solid like iron they move very 
little ; but a current of electricity through iron makes the 
molecules move in a peculiar way. In a liquid like water, 
the molecules cling together very loosely, and may easily 
be pulled apart. In any gas, like air or steam, the mole- 
cules are entirely disconnected, and are constantly trying 
to get farther apart. 

Heat, says the scientist^ is nothing more or less than 
the movement of the molecules back and forth. Heat up 
a piece of iron in a hot furnace, and the molecules keep 
getting further and further apart, and the iron gets softer 
and softer, till it becomes a liquid. If we take some liquid 
like water and heat it, the molecules get farther and far- 
ther apart, till the water boils, as we say, or turns into 
steam. As steam the molecules have broken apart en- 
tirely, and are beating back and forth so rapidly that they 
have a tendency to push each other farther and farther 
apart. This pushing tendency is the cause of steam pres- 
sure. It also explains why steam has an expansive 
power. 

Heat, then, is the movement of the molecules back and 
forth. There are three fixed ranges in which they move ; 
the small range makes a solid ; the next range makes a 
liquid ; the third range makes a gas, such as steam. These 
three states of matter as affected by heat are very sharp 
and definite. The point at which a solid turns to a liquid 
is called the melting point. The melting point of ice is 
32' Fahr. The point at which it turns to a gas is called 
the boiling point. With water that is 212" Fahr. The 
general tendency of heat is to push apart, or expand ; 
and when the heat is taken away the substances contract. 

Let us consider our steam boiler. We saw that some 
different kinds of atoms have a strong tendency to rush 
tog^ether; for example, oxygen and carbon. The air is 
full of oxygen, and coal and wood are full of carbon. 
When they are raised to a certain temperature, and 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. IIQ 

the molecules get loose enough so that they can tear 
themselves away from whatever they are attached to, 
they rush together with terrible force, which sets all 
surrounding molecules to vibrating faster than ever. This 
means that heat is given out. 

Another important thing is that when a solid changes 
to a liquid, or a liquid to a gas, it must take up a certain 
am.ount of heat to keep the molecules always just so far 
apart. That heat is said to become latent, for it will not 
show in a thermometer, it will not cause anything to ex- 
pand, nor will it do any work. It merely serves to hold 
the molecules just so far apart. 

HOW ENERGY IS LOST. 

We may now see some of the ways in which energy is 
lost. First, the air which goes into the firebox consists 
of nitrogen as well as oxygen. That nitrogen is only in 
the way, and takes heat from the fire, which it carries 
out at the smokestack. 

Again, if the air cannot get through the bed of coals 
easily enough, or there is not enough of it so that every 
atom, of carbon, etc.^ will find the right number of atoms 
of oxygen, some of the atoms of carbon will be torn off 
and united with oxygen, and the other atoms of carbon, 
left without any oxygen to unite with, will go floating out 
at the smokestack as black smoke. Also, the carbon 
and the oxygen cannot unite except at a certain temper- 
ature, and when fresh fuel is thrown on the fire it is cold, 
and a good many atoms of carbon after being loosened 
up, get cooled off again before they have a chance to 
find an atom of oxygen, and so they, too, go floating off 
and are lost. 

If the smoke could be heated up, and there were 
enough oxygen mixed with it, the loose carbon would 
still burn and produce heat, and there would be an econ- 
omy of fuel. This has given rise to smoke consumers, and 
arranging two boilers, so that when one is being fired the 
heat from the other will catch the loose carbon before it 
gets away and burn it up. 

So we have these points : 

I. Enough oxygen or air must get into a furnace so 



120 YOUXG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

that every atom of carbon will have its atom of oxygen. 
This means that you must have a good draft and that the 
air must have a chance to get through the coal or other 
fuel. 

2. The fuel must be kept hot enough all the time so 
that the carbon and oxygen can unite. Throwing on too 
much cold fuel at one time will lower the heat beyond the 
economical point and cause loss in thick smoke. 

3. If the smoke can pass over a hot bed of coals, or 
through a hot chamber, the carbon in it may still be 
burned. This suggests putting fuel at the front of the 
firebox, a little at a time, so that its smoke will have to 
pass over a hot bed of coals and the waste carbon will 
be burned. When the fresh fuel gets heated up, it may 
be pushed farther back. 

From a practical point of view these points mean, Xo 
dead plates in a furnace to keep the air from going 
through coal or wood : a thin fire so the air can get 
through easily ; place the fresh fuel where its smoke will 
have a chance to be burned ; and do not cool oft the fur- 
nace by putting on much fresh fuel at a time. 

(Later we will give more hints on firing.) 

HOW HEAT 15 DISTRIBUTED. 

We have described heat as the movement of molecules 
back and forth at a high rate of speed. If these heated 
molecules beat against a solid like iron, its molecules are 
set in motion, one knocks the next, and so on, just as you 
push one man in a crowd, he pushes the next, and so on 
till the push comes out on the other side. So heat passes 
through iron and appears on the other side. This is 
called "conduction.'' 

^ All space is supposed to be filled with a substance in 
which heat, light, etc., may be transmitted, called the 
ether. \A'hen the molecules of a sheet of iron are heated, 
or set vibrating, they transmit the vibration through the 
air, or ^ ether. This is called ''radiation." Heat is ''con- 
ducted'' through solid and liquid substances, and "radi- 
ated" through gases. 

Now some substances conduct heat readily, and some 
'do so with the greatest difi!iculty. Iron is a good con- 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. 121 

ductor ; carbon, or soot on the flues of a boiler, and lime 
or scale on the inside of a boiler, are very poor con- 
ductors. So the heat will go through the iron and steel 
to the water in a boiler quickly and easily, and a large per 
cent of the heat of the furnace will get to the water in a 
boiler. When a boiler is old and is clogged with soot 
and coated with lime, the heat cannot get through easily, 
and goes off in the smokestack. The air coming out of 
the smokestack will be much hotter ; and that extra heat 
is lost. 

Iron is a good radiator, too. So if the outer shell of a 
boiler is exposed to the air, a great deal of heat will run 
off into space and be lost. Here^ then, is where you need 
a non-conductor, as it is called, such as lime, wood, or 
the like. 

Economy says, cover the outside of a boiler shell with 
a non-conductor. This may be brickwork in a set boiler ; 
in a traction boiler it means a jacket of wood, plaster, 
hair, or the like. The steam pipe, if it passes through 
outer air, should be covered with felt; and the steam 
cylinder ought to have its jacket, too. 

At the same time all soot and all scale should be scrup- 
ulously cleaned away. 

PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 

As we have already seen, steam is a gas. It is slightly 
blue in color, just as the water in the ocean is blue, or the 
air in the sky. 

We must distinguish between steam and vapor. \^apor 
is small particles of water hanging in the air. They seem 
to stick to the molecules composing the air, or hang there 
in minute drops. Water hanging in the air is, of course, 
water still. Its molecules do not have the movement that 
the molecules of a true gas do, such as steam is. Steam, 
moreover, has absorbed latent heat, and has expansive 
force ; but vapor has no latent heat, and no expansive 
force. So vapor is dead and lifeless, while steam is live 
and full of energy to do work. 

When vapor gets mixed with steam it is only in the 
way; it is a sort of dead weight that must be carried; 



122 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

and the steam power is diminished by having vapor mixed 
with it. 

Now all steam, as it bubbles up through water in boil- 
ing takes up with it a certain amount of vapor. Such 
steam is called '''wet" steam. When the vapor is no 
longer in it, the steam is called ''dry'' steam. It is dry 
steam that does the best work, and that every engineer 
wants to get. 

While water will be taken up to great heights in the 
air and form clouds, in steam it will not rise very 
much, and at a certain height above the level of the water 
in a boiler the steam will be much drier than near the 
surface. For this reason steam domes have been devised, 
so that the steam may be taken out at a point as high as 
possible above the water in the boiler, and sO' be as dry 
as possible. Also "dry tubes'' have been devised, which 
let the steam pass through many small holes that -serve 
to keep back the water to a certain extent. 

However, there will be more or less moisture in all 
steam until it has been superheated, as it is called. This 
may be done by passing it through the hot part of the 
furnace, where the added heat will turn all the moisture 
in the steam into steam, and we shall have perfectly dry 
steam. 

The moment, however, that steam goes through a cold 
pipe, or one cooled by radiation, or goes into a cold 
cylinder, or a cylinder cooled by radiation, some of the 
steam will turn to water, or condense, as it is called. So 
we have the same trouble again. 

Much moisture passing into the cylinder with the steam 
is called "priming." In that case the dead weight of 
water has become so great as to kill a great part of the 
steam power. 

HOW TO USE THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF STEAM. 

We have said that the molecules in steam are always 
trying to get farther and farther apart. If they are free 
in the air, they will soon scatter ; but if they are con- 
fined in a boiler or cylinder they merely push out in every 
direction, forming "pressure." 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. 123 

When steam is let into the cyhnder it has the whole 
accumulated pressure in the boiler behind it, and of course 
that exerts a strong push on the piston. Shut off the 
boiler pressure and the steam in the cylinder will still 
have its own natural tendency to expand. As the space 
in the cylinder grows larger with the movement of the 
piston from end to end, the expansive power of the steam 
becomes less and less, of course. However, every little 
helps, and the push this lessened expansive force exerts 
on the piston is so much energy saved. If the full boiler 
pressure is kept on the piston the whole length of the 
stroke, and then the exhaust port is immediately opened, 
all this expansive energy of the steam is lost. It escapes 
through the exhaust nozzle into the smokestack and is 
gone. Possibly it cannot get out quickly enough, and 
causes back pressure on the cylinder when the piston 
begins its return stroke, so reducing the power of the 
engine. 

To save this the skilled engineer ''notches up" his re- 
verse lever, as they say. The reverse lever controls the 
valve travel When the lever is in the last notch the 
valve has its full travel. When the lever is in the center 
notch the valve has no travel at all, and no steam can 
get into the cylinder; on the other side the lever allows 
the valve to travel gradually more and more in the oppo- 
site direction, so reversing the engine. 

As the change from one direction to the other direction 
is, of course, gradual, the valve movement is shortened 
by degrees, and lets steam into the cylinder for a cor- 
respondingly less time. At its full travel it perhaps lets 
steam into the cylinder for three-quarters of its stroke. 
For the last quarter the w^ork is done by the expansive 
power of the steam. 

Set the lever in the half notch, and the travel of the 
valve is so altered that steam can get into the cylinder 
only during half the stroke of the piston, the w^ork during 
the rest of the stroke being done by the expansive force 
of the steam. 

Set the lever in the notch next to the middle notch, or 
the quarter notch, and steam will get into the cylinder 



124 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

only during a quarter of the stroke of the piston, the 
work being done during three-quarters of the stroke by 
the expansive force of the steam. 

Obviously the more the steam is expanded the less 
work it can do. But when it escapes at the exhaust 
there will be very little pressure to be carried away 
and lost. 

Therefore when the load on his engine is Hght the 
economical engineer will ''notch up'' his engine with the 
reverse lever, and will use up correspondingly less steam 
and save correspondingly more fuel. When the load is 
unusually heavy, however, he will have to use the full 
power of the pressure in the boiler, and the waste can- 
not be helped. 

THE COMPOUND ENGINE. 

The compound engine is an arrangement of steam 
cylinders to save the expansive power of steam at all 
times by letting the steam from one cylinder' where it is 
at high pressure into another after it exhausts from the 
first, in this second cylinder doing more work purely by 
the expansive power of the steam. 

The illustration shows a sectional view of a com- 
pound engine having two cyHnders, one high pressure 
and one low. The low pressure cylinder is much larger 
than the high pressure. There is a single plate between 
them called the center head, and the same piston rod is 
fitted with two pistons, one for each cylinder. The 
steam chest does not receive steam from the boiler, but 
from the exhaust of the high pressure cylinder. The 
steam from the boiler goes into a chamber in the double 
valve, from which it passes to the ports of the high 
pressure cylinder. At the return stroke the exhaust 
steam escapes into the steam chest, and from there it 
passes into the low pressure cylinder. There may be 
one valve riding on the back of another; but the simplest 
form of compound engine is built with a single double 
valve, which opens and closes the ports for both cylin- 
ders at one movement. 

Theoretically- the compound engine should effect a 



6C0NQMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. 



1^3 



genuine economy. In practice there are. many things to 
operate against this. Of course if the steam pressure 
|S low to start with, the amount of pressure lost in the 
(rxbaust will be small. But if it is very high, the saving 







126 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

in the low pressure cylinder will be relatively large. If 
the work can be done just as well with a low pressure, it 
would be a practical waste to keep the pressure abnor- 
mally high in order to make the most of the compound 
engine. 

An engine must be a certain size before the saving 
of a compound cylinder will be appreciable. In these 
days nearly all verydarge engines are compound, while 
small engines are simple. 

Another consideration to be taken into account is that 
a compound is more complicated and so harder to man- 
age; and w^hen any unfavorable condition causes loss it 
causes proportionately more loss on a compound than on 
a simple engine. For these and other reasons compound 
engines have been used less for traction purposes than 
simple engines have. It is probable that a skilled and 
thoroughly competent engineer, who would manage his 
engine in a scientific manner, would get more out of a 
compound than out of a simple ; and this would be espe- 
cially true in regions w^here fuel is high. If fuel is cheap 
and the engineer tmskilled, a compound engine would 
be a poor economizer. 

FRICTION. 

We have seen that the molecules of water have a 
tendency to stick in the steam as vapor or moisture. All 
molecules that are brought into close contact have more or 
less tendency to stick together, and this is called friction. 
The steam as it passes along the steam pipe is checked to 
a certain extent by the friction on the sides of the pipe. 
Friction causes heat, and it means that the heat caused 
has been taken from some source of energy. The friction 
of the steam diminishes the energy of the steam. 

So, too, the fly wheel moving against the air suffers 
friction with the air, besides having to drive particles of 
air out of its path. All the moving parts of an engine 
where one metal moves on another suffer friction, since 
where the metals are pressed very tightly together they 
have more tendency to stick than w^hen not pressed so 
tightly. When iron is pressed too tightly, as under the 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. 12/^ 

blows of a hammer in a soft state, it actually welds to- 
gether solidly. 

There is a great deal of friction in the steam cylinder, 
since the packing rings must press hard against the w^alls 
of the cylinder to prevent the steam from getting through. 
There is a great deal of friction betw^een the D valve and 
its seat, because of the high steam pressure on the back 
of the valve. There is friction in the stuffing boxes both 
of the valve and the piston. There is friction at all the 
bearings. 

There are various ways in which friction may be re- 
duced. The most obvious is to adjust all parts so nicely 
that they wall bind as little as possible. The stuffing- 
boxes will be no tighter than is necessary to prevent 
leaking of steam ; and so with the piston rings. Journal 
boxes wall be tight enough to prevent pounding, but no 
tighter. To obtain just the right adjustment requires 
great patience and the keen powders of observation and 
judgment. 

The makers of engines try to reduce friction as much 
as possible by using anti-friction metals in the boxes. 
Iron and steel have to be used in shafts, gears, etc., be- 
cause of the strength that they possess; but there are 
some metals that stick to each other and to iron and steel 
much less than iron or steel stick to each other wdien 
pressed close together. These metals are more or less 
soft ; but they may be used in boxes and journal bearings 
They are called anti-friction metals. The hardest foi 
practical purposes is brass, and brass is used where there 
is much W'Car. Where there is less w^ear various alloys 
of copper, tin, zinc, etc., may be used in the boxes. One 
of these is babbit metal, w^hich is often used in the main 
journal box. 

All these anti-friction metals w^ear out rapidly, and 
they must be put in so that they can be adjusted or re- 
newed easily. 

But the great anti- friction agent is oil. 

Oil is peculiar in that while the molecules seem to sticl' 
tightly together and to a metal like iron or steel, they roll 
around upon each other wdth the utmost ease. An ideal 



128 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

lubricator is one that sticks so tight to the journal that 
it forms a sort of cushion all around it, and prevents any 
of its molecules coming into contact with the molecules 
of the metal box. All the friction then takes place be- 
tween the different molecules of oil, and this friction is 
a minimum. 

The same principle has been appHed to mechanics in 
the ball bearing. A number of little balls roll around 
between the journal and its box, preventing the two 
metals from coming into contact with each other; while 
the balls, being spheres, touch each other only at a 
single point, and the total space at which sticking can 
occur is reduced to a minimum. 

As is well known, there is great difference in oils. 
Some evaporate, like gasoline and kerosene, and so dis- 
appear quickly. Others do not stick tightly to the jour- 
nal, so are easily forced out of place, and the metals are 
allowed to come together. What is, wanted, then, is a 
heavy, sticky oil that will not get hard, but will ahways 
form a good cushion between bearings. 

Steam cylinders cannot be oiled directly, but the oil 
must be carried to the steam chest and cylinder in the 
steam. A good cylinder oil must be able to stand a 
high temperature. While it is diffused easily in the 
steam, it must stick tightly to the walls of the steam 
cylinder and to the valve seat, and keep them lubri- 
cated. Once it is stuck to the metal, the heat of the 
steam should not evaporate it and carry it away. 

Again, a cylinder oil should not have any acid in it 
which would have a tendency tO' corrode the metal. 
Nearly all animal fats do have some such acid. So 
tallow and the like should not be placed where they can 
corrode iron or steel. Lard and suet alone are suitable 
for use on an engine. 

When it comes to lubricating traction gears, other 
problems appear. A heavy ^2:rease will stick to the gears 
and prevent them from cutting; but it will stick equally 
to all sand and grit that may come along, and that, work- 
ing between the cogs, may cut them badly. So some 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. I.-^cj 

engineers recommend the use on gears of an oil that does 
not gather so much dirt. 

The friction of the valve on its seat due to the pres- 
sure of the steam on its back has given rise to many 
inventions for counteracting it. The most obvious of 
these is what is called ''the balanced valve." In the 
compound engine, where the steam pressure is obtained 
upon both sides of the valve, it rides much more lightly 
on its seat — so lightly, indeed, that when steam pressure 
is low, as in going down hill or operating under a li2*ht 
load, plunger pistons must be used to keep the valve 
down tight on its seat. 

The poppet valves were devised to obviate the Undue 
friction of the D valve ; but the same loss of energ}^ 
is to a certain extent transferred, and the practical sav- 
ing is not always equal to the theoretical. On large 
stationary engines rotary valves and other forms, such 
as are used on the Corliss engine, have come into common 
use ; but they are too complicated for a farm engine, 
which must be as simple as possible, w^ith least possible 
liability of getting out of order. 



CHAPTER XI. 

ECONOMY IN RUNNING A FARM ENGINE. (COKT.) 

PRACTICAL POINTS. 

The first practical point in the direction of farm engine 
economy is to note that the best work can be done only 
when ever}^ part of the engine and boiler are in due pro- 
portion. If the power is in excess of the work to be done 
there is loss ; if the grate surface is too large cold air gets 
through the fuel and prevents complete combustion, and 
if the grate surface is too small, not enough air gets in ; 
if the steaming power of the boiler is too large, heat is radi- 
ated away that otherwise could be saved, for every foot of 
exposed area in the boiler is a source of loss ; if the steam- 
ing power of the boiler is too low for ^the work to be 
done, it requires extra fuel to force the boiler to do its 
work, and any forcing means comparativelv large loss 
or waste. It will be seen that not only must the engine 
and boiler be built with the proper proportions, but 
they must be bought with a nice sense of proportion to 
the work expected of them. This requires excellent 
judgment and some experience in measuring work in 
horsepowers. 

GRATE SURFACE AND FUEL. 

The grate surface in a firebox should be not less than 
two-thirds of a square foot per horsepower, for average 
size traction engines. If the horsepower of an engine is^ 
small^ proportionately more grate surface will be needed ; 
if it is large, the grate surface may be proportionately 
much smaller. An engine boiler 7x8x200 rev., with- 100 lbs. 
pressure, should have a great surface not less than six 
square feet, and seven would be better. In a traction en- 
gine there is always a tendency to make the grate sur- 
face as small as possible, so that the engine will not be 
cumbersome. 

13^ 



ECONOMY RUNNING i<ARAL IlNGINE. I3I 

Another reason why the grate surface should be suC- 
nciently large is that forced draft is a bad thing, since 
it has a tendency to carry the products of combustion and 
hot gases through the smokestack and out into space be- 
fore they have time to complete combustion and espe- 
cially before the heat of the gases has tkne to be absorbed 
by the boiler surface. A large grate surface, then, with 
a moderate draft, is the most economical. 

The draft depends on other things, however. If a 
great deal of fine fuel is thrown on a fire, the air must 
be forced through, because it cannot get through in the 
natural way. This results in waste. So a fire should be 
as open as possible. Coal should be "thin" on the grates ; 
wood should be thrown in so that there wall be plenty of 
air spaces ; straw should be fed in just so that it will burn 
up completely as it goes in. Moderate size coal is better 
than small or fine. Dust in coal checks the draft. A 
good engineer will choose his fuel and handle his fire so 
that he can get along with as little forced draft as pos- 
sible. 

In a straw^ burning engine a good circulation of air can 
be obtained, if the draft door is just below the straw fun- 
nel, by extending the funnel into the furnace six inches 
or so. This keeps the straw from clogging up the place 
wdiere the air enters and enables it to get at the fuel so 
much more freely that the combustion is much more com- 
plete. 

We have already suggested that in firing wdth coal, the 
fresh fuel be deposited in front, so that the smoke will 
have to pass over live coals and so the combustion will 
be more complete. Then when the coal is well lighted it 
can be poked back over the other portions of the grate. 
This method has another advantage, in that the first heat- 
ing is usually sufficient to separate the pure coal from the 
mineral substances which form clinkers, and most of the 
clinkers will be deposited at that one point in the grate. 
Here they can easily be lifted out, and will not seriously 
interfere with the burning of the coal as they would if 
scattered all over the grate. Clinkers in front can easily 
be taken out by hooking the poker over them toward the 
b-ack of the firebox and pulling them up and to the front. 



1^2 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

Tlic\' often come out as one big mass which can be easily 
hfted out. 

The best time to clean the grate is when there is a good 
brisk fire. Then it wdll not cause steam tO' go down. 
Stirring a fire does httle good. For one thing, it breaks 
up the clinkers and allows them to run down on the grate 
bars when they stick and finally w^arp the bars. If 
the fire is not stirred the clinkers can be lifted 
cut in large masses. Stirring a fire also creates a ten- 
dency to choke up or coke, and interferes with the even 
and regular combustion of the coal at all points. 

The highest heat that can be produced is a yellow 
heat. When there is a good yellow heat, forced draft wall 
only carry off the heat and cause waste. It will not cause 
still more rapid combustion. AA^hen the heat is merely 
red, increased draft will raise the temperature. Combus- 
tion is not complete until the flame shows yellow. How- 
ever, if the draft is slight and time is given, red heat wuU 
be nearly as effective, but it will not carry the heated 
p*ases over so large a part of the heating surface of the 
boiler. With a very large grate surface, red heat will do 
very well. Certainly it will be better than a forced draft, 
or an efifort at heating beyond the yellow point. 

BOILER HEATING SURFACE. 

The heat of the furnace does its work only as the 
heated gases touch the boiler surface. The iron conducts 
the heat through to the water, which is raised to the boil- 
ing point and turned into steam. 

Now the amount of heat that the boiler will take up 
is directly in proportion to the amount of exposed sur- 
face and to the time of exposure. If the boiler heating 
surface is small, and the draft is forced so that the gases 
pass through rapidly, they do not have a chance to com- 
municate much heat. 

Also if the heating surface is too large, so that it can- 
not all be utilized, the part not used becomes a radiating 
surface, and the efficiency of the boiler is impaired. 

Practice has show^i that the amount of heating surface 
practically required by a boiler is 12 to 15 square feet per 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. I33 

horsepower. In reckoning heating surface, all area which 
the heated gases touch is calculated. 

Another point in regard to heating surface in the pro- 
duction of steam is this, that only such surface as is ex- 
posed to a heat equal to turning the water into steam is 
effective. If there is a pressure of 150 lbs. the temperature 
at which the water would turn to steam would be 357 
degrees, and any gases wdiose temperature was below 
357 degrees would have no effect on the heating surface 
except to prevent radiation. Thus in a return flue boiler 
the heated gases become cooled often to such an extent 
before they pass out at the smokestack that they do not 
help the generation of steam. Yet a heat just below 357 
degrees would turn water into steam under 149 lbs. pres- 
sure. Though it has work in it, the heat is lost. 

Another practical point as to economy in large heating 
surface is that it costs money to make, and is cumbersome 
to move about. It may cost more to move a traction 
engine with large boiler from place to place than the sav- 
ing in fuel would amount to. So the kind of roads and the 
cost of fuel must be taken into account and nicely bal- 
anced. 

However, it may be said that a boiler with certain out- 
side dimensions that will generate 20 horsepower will be 
more economical than one of the same size that will gen- 
erate only 10 horsepower. In selecting an engine, the 
higher the horsepower for the given dimensions, 'the more 
economical of both fuel and water. 

The value of heating surface alsO' depends on the ma- 
terial through which the heat must penetrate, and the 
rapidity with which the heat will pass. We have already 
pointed out that soot and lime scale permit heat to pass 
but slowly and if they are allowed to accumulate will 
greatly reduce the steaming power of a boiler for a given 
consumption of fuel. Another point is that the thinner 
the iron or steel, the better will the heat get through 
even that. So it follows that flues, being thinner, are bet- 
ter conductors than the sides of the firebox. Long flues 
are better than short ones in that the long ones allow less 
soot, etc., to accumulate than the short ones do, and af- 



134 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

ford more time for the boiler to absorb the heat of the 
gases. 

Again, we have stated that heating surface is valuable 
only as it is exposed to the gases at a sufficiently high 
temperature. Some boilers have a tendency to draw the 
hot gases most rapidly through the upper flues, while the 
lower flues do not get their proportion of the heat. This 
results in a loss, for the heat to give its full benefit should 
be equally distributed. 

To prevent the heat being drawn too rapidly through 
upper flues, a baffle plate may be placed in the smoke 
box just above the upper flues, thus preventing them from 
getting so much of the draft. 

Again, if the exhaust nozzle is too low down, the draft 
through the lower flues may be greater than through the 
upper. This is remedied by putting a piece of pipe on the 
exhaust to raise it higher in the smiokestack. 

EXPANSION AND CONDENSATION. 

We have already pointed out that economy results if 
we hook up the reverse lever so that the expansive force 
of the steam has an opportunity to work during half or 
three-quarters of the stroke. 

One difficulty arising from this method is that the 
walls of the cylinder cool more rapidly when not under 
the full boiler pressure. Condensation in the cylinder is 
a practical difficulty which should be met and overcome 
as far as possible. 

High speed gives some advantage. A judicious use 
of cushion helps condensation somewhat also, because 
when any gas like steam or air is compressed^ it gives 
off heat, and this heat in the cushion will keep up the 
temperature of the cylinder. This cannot be carried very 
far, however, for the back pressure of cushion will reduce 
the energy of the engine movement. 

LEAD AND CLEARANCE. 

Too much clearance will detract from the power of an 
engine, as there is just so much more waste space to be 
filled with hot steam. Too little clearance will cause 
pounding. 



ECONOMY RUNNING FARM ENGINE. I35 

Likewise there will be loss of power in an engine if 
the lead is too great or too little. The proper amount of 
lead differs with conditions. A high speed engine re- 
quires more than a low speed, and if an engine is ad- 
justed for a certain speed, it should be kept uniformly 
at that speed, as variation causes loss. The more clear- 
ance an engine has the more lead it needs. Also the 
quicker the valve motion, the less lead required. Some- 
times when a large engine is pulling only a light load 
and there is no chance to shorten the cut-off, a turn of 
the eccentric disk for a trifle more lead will effect some 
economy. 

Cut-off should be as sharp as possible. A slow cut-off 
in reducing pressure before cut-off is complete, causes a 
loss of power in the engine. 

THE EXHAUST. 

If the exhaust from the cylinder does not begin before 
the piston begins its return stroke, there will be back 
pressure due to the slowness with which the valve opens. 
The exhaust should be earlier in proportion to the slow- 
ness of the valve motion, and also in proportion to the 
speed of the engine, since the higher the speed the less 
time there is for the steam to get out. It follows that an 
engine whose exhaust is arranged for a low speed can- 
not be run at a high speed without causing loss from 
back pressure. 

In using steam expansively the relative proportion be- 
tween the back pressure and the force of the steam is of 
course greater. So in using steam expansively the back 
pressure must be at a minimum, and this is especially 
true in the compound engine. So many things affect 
this, that it becomes one of the reasons why it is hard 
to use a compound engine with as great economy as the- 
ory would indicate. 

Another thing, the smallness of the exhaust nozzle in 
the smokestack affects the back pressure. The smaller 
the nozzle, the greater the draft a given amount of steam 
will create ; but the more back pressure there will be, due 
to the inability of the exhaust steam to get out easily. 
So the exhaust nozzle should be as large as circumstances 



136 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

will permit. It is a favorite trick with engineers testing 
the pulling power of their engines to remove the exhaust 
nozzle entirely for a few minutes when the fire is up. 
The back pressure saved will at once show m the pulling 
power of the engine, and every one will be surprised. Of 
course the fire couldn't be kept going long without the 
nozzle on. We have already pointed out that a natural 
draft is better than a forced one. Here is another reason 
for it. 

LEAKS. 

Leaks always cause a waste of power. They may usu- 
ally be seen when about the boiler ; but leaks in the piston 
and valve will often go unnoticed. 

It is to be observed that if a valve does not travel a 
short distance beyond the end of its seat, it will wear the 
part it does travel on, while the remaining part will not 
wear and will become a shoulder. Such a shoulder will 
nearly always cause a leak in the valve, and besides will 
add the friction, and otherwise destroy the economy of 
the engine. 

Likewise the piston will wear part of the cylinder and 
leave a shoulder at either end if it does not pass entirely 
beyond the steam-tight portion of the inside of the cyl- 
inder. That it may always do this and yet leave sufficient 
clearance, the counterbore has been devised. All good 
engines are bored larger at each end so that the piston 
will pass beyond the steam-tight portion a trifle at the 
end of each stroke. Of course it must not pass far enough 
to allow any steam to get through. 

Self-setting piston rings are now generally used. They 
are kept in place by their own tension. There will al- 
ways be a little leakage at the lap. The best lap is prob- 
ably a broken joint rather than a diagonal one. More- 
over^ as the rings wear they will have a tendency to get 
loose unless they are thickest at a point just opposite to 
the lap, since this is the point at which it is necessary to 
m,ake up for the tension lost by the lapping. 



CHAPTER XII. 

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 
STATIONARY. 

So far we have described and referred exclusively to 
ti.ie usual form of the farm traction engine, which is 
nearly always the simplest kind of an engine, except in 
one particular, namely, the reverse which gives a variable 
cut-off. Stationary engines, however, are worked under 
such conditions that various changes in the arrangement 




D. JUNE & CO.'S STATIONARY FOUR-VALVE ENGINE. 

may be made which gives economy in operating, or other 
desirable qualities. We will now briefly describe some 
of the different kinds of stationary engines. 

THROTTLING AND AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF TYPES. 

Engines m.ay be divided into two classes, namely, throt- 
tling and automatic cut-off engines. The throttling 
engine regulates the speed of the engine by cutting oft' 
the supply of steam from the boiler, either by the hand 

137 



138 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

of the engineer on the throttle or by a governor working 
a special throttling governor valve. Railroad locomotives 
are throttling engines, and moreover they have no gov- 
ernor, the speed being regulated by the engineer at the 
throttle valve. Traction engines are usually throttling 
engines provided with a governor. 

An automatic cut-off engine regulates its speed by a 
governor connected with the valve, and does it by short- 
ening the time during which steam can enter the cylinder. 
This is a great advantage, in that the expansive power 
of steam is given a chance to work, while in the throttling 
engine steam is merely cut off. The subject has been 
fully discussed under ''Economy in Running a Farm 
Engine." An automatic cut-off engine is much the most 
economical. 

While on traction engines the governor is usually of 
the ball variety, on stationary engines improved forms 
of governors are also placed in the fly wheel, and work 
in various ways, according to the requirements of the 
valve gear. 

THE CORLISS ENGINE. 

The Corliss engine is a type now well known and made 
by many different manufacturers. It is considered one 
of the most economical stationary engines made, but 
cannot be used for traction purposes. It may be com- 
pound, and may be used with a condenser. It cannot 
bQ used as a high speed engine, since the valves will not 
work rapidly enough. 

The peculiarity of a Corliss engine is the arrangement 
of the valves. It has four valves instead of one, and 
they are of the semi-rotary type. They consist of a 
small, long cylinder which rocks back and forth, so as 
to close and open the port, which is rather wide and 
short compared to other types. There is a valve at each 
end of the cylinder opening usually into the clearance 
space, to admit steam ; and two more valves belovv^ the 
cylinder for the exhaust. These exhaust valves allow 
any water of condensation to run out of the cyh'nder. 
Moreover, as the steam when it leaves the cylinder i§ 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. ' 1 39 

much colder than when it enters, the exhaust always 
cools the steam ports, and when the same ports are used 
for exhaust and admission the fresh steam has to pass 
through ports that have been cooled and cause condensa- 
tion. In the Corliss engine the exhaust does not have 
an opportunity to cool the live steam ports and the con- 
densation is reduced. This works considerable economy. 

Also the Corliss valves have little friction from steam 
pressure on their own backs, since the moment they are 
lifted from their seats they work freely. The valves are 
controlled by a governor so as to make the automatic 
cut-off engine. 

The Corliss type of frame for engine is often used on 
traction engines and means the use of convex shoes on 
cross-head and concave ways or guides. In locomotive 
type, cross-head slides in four square angle guides. 

THE HIGH SPEED ENGINE. 

A high speed engine means one in which the speed of 
the piston back and forth is high, rather than the speed 
of rotation, there being sometimes a difference. High 
speed engines came into use because of the need of such 
to run dynamos for electric lighting. Without a high 
speed engine an intermediate gear would have to be 
used, so as to increase the speed of the operating shaft. 
In the high speed engine this is done away with. 

As an engine's power varies directly as its speed as 
well as its cylinder capacity or size, an engine commonly 
used for ten horsepower would become a twenty horse- 
power engine if the speed could be doubled. So high 
speed engines are very small and compact, and require 
less metal to build them. Therefore they should be much 
cheaper per horsepower. 

A high speed engine differs from a low speed in no 
essential particular, except the adjustment of parts. 
A high steam pressure must be used ; a long, narrow 
valve port is used, so that the full steam pressure may 
be let on quickly at the beginning of the stroke when 
the piston is reversing its motion and needs power to 
get started quickly on its return ; the slide valve must be 



140 YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIEZ. 

used, since the semi-rotary Corliss would be too wide and 
short for a quick opening. Some high speed engines are 
built which use four valves, as does the Corliss. The 
friction of the slide valve is usually ''balanced'' in some 
way, either by ''pressure plates" above the valve, which 
pi event the steam from getting at the top and pressing 
the valve down, or by letting the steam under the valve, 
making it slide on narrow strips, since the pressure above 
would then be reduced in proportion with the smallness 
of the bearing surface below, and if the bearing surface 
were very small the pressure above would be correspond- 
ingly small, perhaps only enough to keep the valve in 
place. Some automatic cut-off gear is almost always 
used. A high speed engine may attain 900 revolutions 
per minute, 600 being common. In many ways it is 
economical. 

CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING. 

In the traction engine the exhaust is used in the smoke- 
stack to help the draft, since the smokestack must neces- 
sarily be short. A stationary engine is usually provided 
with a boiler set in brickwork, and a furnace with a high 
chimney, which creates all the draft needed. In other 
words, the heated gases wasted in a traction engine are 
utilized to make the draft. 

It then becomes desirable to save the power in the ex- 
haust steam in some way. Some of this can be used to 
heat the feed water, but only a fraction ot it. 

Now when the exhaust steam issues into the air it 
must overcome the pressure of the atmosphere, nearly 
15 lbs. to the square inch, which is a large item to begin 
vnth. This can be saved by letting the steam exhaust 
into a condenser, where a spray of cold water or the 
like suddenly condenses the steam so that a vacuum is 
created. There is then no back pressure on the exhaust 
steam, theoretically. Practically a perfect vacuum can- 
not be created, and there is a back pressure of 2 or 3 
lbs. per square inch. By the use of a condenser a back 
pressure of about 12 lbs. is taken off the head of the 
piston on its return stroke, a matter of considerable 



diffJ':re:nt types of encunes. 



141 



economy. But an immense amount of water is required 
to run a condenser, namely, 20 times as much for a given 
saving of power as is required in a boiler to make that 




power. So condensers are used only where water is 
cheap. 

COMPOUND AND CROSS-COMPOUND. 

We have already explained the economy effected by the 
compound engine, in which a large low pressure cylinder 



14^ YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

is Operated by the exhaust from a small high pressure 
cylinder. In the cut used for illustration the low pressure 
cylinder is in direct line with the high pressure cylinder, 
and one piston rod connects both pistons. This arrange- 
ment is called the "tandem." Sometimes the low pressure 
cylinder is placed by the side of the high pressure, or at a 
distance from it, and operates another piston and con- 
necting rod. By using a steam chest to store the ex- 
haust steam and varying the cut-off of the two cylinders, 
the crank of the low pressure may be at an angle of 
90 degrees with the crank of the high pressure, and there 
can be no dead center. 

When a very high pressure of steam is used the ex- 
haust from the low pressure cylinder may be used to- 
operate a third cylinder; and the exhaust from that to 
operate a fourth. Engines so arranged are termed triple 
and quadruple expansion engines, or multiple expansion. 

The practical saving of a compound engine when its 
value can be utilized to the full is 10 per cent to 20 per 
cent. Small engines are seldom compounded, large en- 
gines nearly alwav^. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



GAS x\ND GASOLINE ENGINES. 



The gas and gasoline engines (they are exactly the 
same except that one generates the gas it needs froni 
gasoline, while the other takes common illuminating 
gas, the use O'f gas or gasoline being interchangeable on 
the same engine by readjustment of some of the parts) 
are operated on a principle entirely different from steam. 
While they are arranged very much as a steam engine, 
the power is given by an explosion of gas miixed with 
air in the cylinder. Instead of being a steady pressure 
like that furnished by steam, it is a. sudden pressure 
given to one end of the piston usually once in four 
strokes or twO' revolutions, one stroke being required 
to draw the gasoline in, the second to com_press it, the 
third to receive the effect oi the explosion (this is the 
only power stroke), the fourth to push out the burned 
gases preparatory to admitting a new charge. The fact 
that force is given the cylinder at such wide intervals 
makes it necessary to have an extra heavy flywheel to 
keep the engine steady, and the double cylinder^ engine 
which can give a stroke at least every revolution is still 
better and is indispensable when the flywheel cannot 
be above a certain weight. 

For small horsepowers, such as are required for pump- 
ing, feed grinding, churning, etc., the gas engine is so 
much more convenient and so- very much cheaper in 
operation than the small steam engine that it is safe to 
say that within a very few years the gas engine will 
have completely displaced the small steam engine. In 
fact^ the discovery of the gas engine permits the same 
economies for the small engine that the progress in 
steam engineering has made possible for the large steam 
engine. x\s yet the gas engine has made little or no 
progress against the large steam plant, with its Corliss 

143 



144 VOUXG EXGIXEERS' GUIDE. 

engine, its triple expansion, its condenser, and all the 
other appHances which are not practicable with the small 
engine. 

COMPARISON OF STEAM AND GAS ENGINES. 

The following points prepared by an experienced 
farm engine manufacturer will show clearly the advan- 
tages of the gas engine over the steam engine for general 
use about a farm : 

In the first place, the farmer uses power, as a rule, 
at short intervals, and also uses small power. Should he 
install a steam engine and wish power for an hour or 
two, it would be necessary for him to start a fire under 
the boiler and get up steam before he could start the 
engine. This would take at least an hour. At the end 
of the run he would have a good fire and good steam 
pressure, but no use for it, and would have to let the 
fire die out and the pressure run down. This involves 
a great waste of water^ time and fuel. With a gasoline 
engine he is always ready and can start to w^ork within 
a few minutes after he makes up his mind to do so, and 
he does not have to anticipate his wants in the power 
line for half a day. Aside from this, in some states, 
notably Ohio, the law compels any person operating 
an engine above ten horsepower to carry a steam en- 
gineer's license. This does not apply to a gasoline engine. 

Again, the gasoline engine is as portable as a traction 
engine, and can be applied to all the uses of a traction 
engine and to general farm use all the rest of the year. 
At little expense it can be fitted up to hoist hay, to pump 
water, to husk and shell corn, to saw wood, and even 
bv recent inventions to plowing. It is as good about a 
farm as an extra m.an and a team of horses. 

A gasoline engine can, be run on a pint of gasoline 
per hour for each horsepower, and as soon as the work 
is done there is no more consumption of fuel and the 
engine can be left without fear, except for draining oft* 
the water in the water jacket in cold weather. A steam 
engine for farm use would require at least four pounds 
of coal per horsepower per hour, and in the majority of 
cases it would be twice that, taking into consideration 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 145 

the amount of fuel necessary to start the fire and that 
left unburned after the farmer is through with his power. 
If you know the cost of crude gasohne at your point 
and the cost of coal^ you can easily figure the exact 
economy of a gasoline engine for your use. To the 
economy of fuel question may be added the labor or 
cost of pumping or hauling water. 

The only point wherein a farmer might find it advan-, 
tageous to have a steam plant would be where he is run- 
ning a dairy and wished steam and hot water for cleans- 
ing his cream.ery machinery. This can be largely over- 
come by using the water from the jackets which can be 
kept at a temperature of about 175 degrees, and if a 
higher temperature is needed he can heat it with the 
exhaust from the engine. The time will certainly come 
soon w^heu' no farmer will consider himself up to date 
until he has a gasoline engine. 

Some persons unaccustomed to gasoline may wonder 
if a gasoline engine is as safe as a steam engine. The 
fact is, they are very much safer, and do not require a 
skilled engineer to run them. The gasoline tank is usu- 
ally placed outside the building, where the danger from 
an explosion is reduced to a minimum. The only danger 
that may be encountered is in starting the engine, filling 
the supply tank when a burner near at hand is in flame, 
etc. Once a gasoline engine is started and is supplied 
with gasoline, it may be left entirely alone without care 
for hours at a time without danger and without adjust- 
ment. 

With a steam engine there is always danger, unless a 
highly skilled man is watching the engine every moment. 
If the water gets a little low he is liable to have an ex- 
plosion; if it gets a little too high he may knock out a 
cylinder head in his engine; the fire must be fed every. 
few minutes ; the grates cleaned. There is' ahvays some- 
thing to be done about a steam engine. 

So here is another point of great saving in a gasoline 
engine, namely, the saving of one man's time. The 
man who runs the gasoline engine may give nearly all 
his time to other work> such as feeding a corn-sheller, 
a fodder chopper, or the like. 



146 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

Kerosene may also be used in the same way with a 
special type of gas engine. 

The amounts of fuel required of the different kinds 
possible in a gas engine are compared as follows by 
Roper : 

Illuminating gas^ 17 to 20 cubic feet per horsepower 
per hour. 

Pittsburg natural gas, as low as 11 cubic feet. 

74° gasoline, know^n as stove gasoline, one-tenth of a 
gallon. 

Refined petroleum, one-tenth of a gallon. 

If a gas producing plant using coal supplies the gas, 
one pound of coal per horsepower per hour is sufficient 
on a large engine. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE GAS OR GASOLINE ENGINE. 

The gas engine consists of a cylinder and piston, pis- 
ton rod, cross-head, connecting rod, crank and flywheel, 
very similar to those used in the steam engine. 

There is a gas valve, an exhaust valve, and in con- 
nection with the gas valve a self-acting air valve. The 
gas valve and the exhaust valve are operated by lever 
arm or cam' worked frorii the main shaft, arranged by 
spiral gear or the like so that it gets one movement for 
each two revolutions of the main shaft. Such an engine 
is called "four cycle'' (meaning one power stroke to each 
four strokes of the piston)^ and works as follows: 

A,s the piston moves forward the air and fuel valves 
are simultaneously opened and closed, starting tof open 
just as the piston starts forward and closing just as. the 
piston completes its forward stroke. Gas and air are 
simultaneously sucked into the cylinder by this move- 
ment. As the cylinder returns it compresses the charge 
taken in during the forward stroke until it again reaches 
back center. The mixture in the Otto engine is com- 
pressed to about 70 pOiunds per square inch. Ignition 
then takes place, causing the mixture to explode and 
giving the force from which the power is derived. As 
the crank again reaches its forward center the piston 
uncovers a port w^hich allows ■ the greater part of the 
burnt gases to escape. As the piston comes back, the 



Gas and gasoline engines. 



147 



exhaust valve is opened, enabling the piston to sweep out 
the remainder of the burnt gases. By the time the crank 
is on the back center the exhaust valve is closed and 
the engine is ready to take another charge, having com- 




148 YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE. 

pleted two revolutions or four strokes. The side shaft 
which performs the functions of opening and closing 
the valves, getting its motion in the Columbus engine 
by a pair of spiral gears, makes but one revolution to 
tw^o of the crank shaft. 

Gas engines are governed in various ways. One 
method is to attach a ball governor similar to the Waters 
on the steam engine. When the speed is too high, the 
balls go out, and a valve is closed or partly closed, cut- 
ting off the fuel supply. Since the engine takes in fuel 
only once in four strokes, the governing cannot be so 
close as on the steam engine, since longer time must 
elapse before the governor can act. 

Another type of governor operates by opening the 
exhaust port and holding it open. The piston then 
merely draws in air through the exhaust port, but no 
gas. This is called the ''hit or miss" governing type. 
One power stroke is missed completely. 

The heat caused by the explosion within the cylinder 
is very great, some say as high as 3,000 degrees. Such 
a heat would soon destroy the oil used tO' lubricate the 
cylinder and make the piston cut, as well as destroying 
the piston packing. To keep this heat down the cylin- 
der is provided wdth a water jacket, and a current of 
water is kept circulating around it to cool it off. 

When gas is used, the gas is passed through a rubber 
bag, which helps to make the supply even. It is ad- 
mitted to the engine by a valve similar to* the throttle 
valve on an engine. 

Gasoline is turned on by a similar valve or throttle. 
It does not have to- be gasefied, but is sucked into the 
cylinder in the form of a spray. As soon as the engine 
is started, the high heat of the cylinder caused by the 
constant explosions readily turns the gasoline to gas as 
it enters. The supply tank oi gasoline is placed outside 
the building, or at a distance, and stands at a point be- 
low the feed. A small pump pumps it up to a small 
box or feed tank, which has an overflow pipe to conduct 
any superfluous gasoline back to the supply tank. In 
the gasoline box or feed tank a conical-shaped basin is 
^lled with gasoline to a certain height, which can he 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. I49 

regulated. Whatever this conical basin contains is s-ucked 
into the cvHnder with the air. By regulating the amount 
in the basin the supply of gasoline in the cylinder can 
be regulated to the amount required for any given 
amount of work. In the Columbus engine this regula- 
tion is accomplished by screwing the overflow regulator 
up or down. 

There are two methods of igniting the charge in the 
cylinder in order to explode it. One is by what is called 
a gasoline or gas torch. A hollow pin or pipe is fixed in 
the top of the cylinder. The upper part of this pin or 
pipe runs up into a gasoline or gas lamp of the Bunsen 
type where it is heated red hot. When the gas and air 
in the cylinder are compressed by the back stroke of the 
piston, some of the mixture is forced up into this pipe 
or tube until it comes in contact with the heated portion 
and is exploded, together with the rest of the charge in 
the cylinder. Of course this tube becomes filled with 
burnt gases which must be compressed before the ex- 
plosive mixture can reach the heated portion, and no ex- 
plosion is theoretically possible until the piston causes 
compression to the full capacity of the cylinder. The 
length of the tube must therefore be nicely regulated 
to the requirements of the particular engine used. 

The other method is by an electric spark from a bat- 
tery. Two electrodes of platinum or some similar sub- 
stance are placed in the compression end of the cylin- 
der. The spark might be caused by bringing the elec- 
trodes sufficiently near together at just the right mo- 
ment^ but the more practical and usual way is to break 
the current, closing it sharply by means of a lever 
worked by the gearing at just the moment the piston 
is ready to return after compressing the charge. The 
electric spark is by long odds the most desirable method 
of ignition, being safer and easier to take care of, but 
it requires some knowledge of electricity and electric 
connection to keep it always in working order. 

OPERATION OF GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 

To all intents and purposes the operation of a gas or 
gasoline engine is the same as that of a steam engine 



150 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

with the care of the boiler eHminated. The care of the 
engine itself is practically the same, though the bear- 
ings are relatively larger in a gasoline or gas engine and 
do not require adjustment so* often. Some manufacturers 
will tell you that a gas engine requires no attention at 
all. Any one who went on that theory would soon ruin 
his engine- To keep a gasoline engine in working order 
so as tO' get the best service from it and make it last as 
long as possible, you should give it the best oif care. 

An engine of this kind needs just as much oiling and 
cleaning as a steam engine. All bearings must be lubri- 
cated and kept free from, dirt, great care must be taken 
that the piston and cylinder are well lubricated. In addi- 
tion, the engineer must see that the valves all work 
perfectly tight, and when they leak in any way they 
must be taken out and cleaned. Usually the valve seats 
are cast separate from the cylinder, so- that they can be 
removed and ground when they have worn. 

Also the water jacket must be kept in order so that the 
cylinder cannot become too hot. 

STARTING A GASOLINE ENGINE. 

It is something of a trick to get a gasoline or gas 
engine started — especially a gasoline engine — and some 
skill must be developed in this or there will be trouble. 
This arises from the fact that when an engine has not 
been running the cylinder is cold and does not readily 
gasefy the gasoline. At best only a part of a charge of 
gasoline can be gasefied, and if the cylinder is very cold 
indeed the charge will not explode at all till the cylinder 
is warmed up. 

When preparing to start an engine, first see that the 
nuts or studs holding cylinder head to cylinder are tight, 
as the heating and cooling- of the cylinder are liable to 
loosen them. Then oil all bearings with a hand oil can, 
and carefully wipe off all outside grease. 

When all is ready, work the gasoline pump to get the 
air out of the feed pipes and fill the reservoir. 

First, the engine must be turned so that the piston is 
as far back as it will go, and to prevent air being pressed 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. I5I 

back the exhaust must be held open, or a cock in prim- 
ing cup on top of cyhnder opened. 

If gasoline priming is needed, the gasoline must be 
poured into the priming cup after closing the cock into the 
cylinder, for it would do no good to merely let the gaso- 
line run down into the cylinder in a cold stream : it must 
be sprayed in. If the exhaust has been held open, and the 
priming charge of gasoline is to be drawn in through the 
regular supply pipe and valve, the exhaust should be 
closed and the throttle turned on to a point indicated 
by the manufacturer of the engine. 

We suppose that the igniter is ready to work. If the 
hot tube is used, the tube should be -hot; if the electric 
igniter is used, the igniter bar should be in position to 
be snapped so as to close the circuit and cause a spark 
when the charge has been compressed. 

If all is ready, open the cock from which the supply 
of gasoline is to be obtained, and at the same time turn 
the engine over so as to draw the charge into the cylin- 
der. If a priming cock has been opened, that must be 
closed by hand as soon as the cylinder is filled and the 
piston ready to return for compression. If the regular 
feed is used, the automatic valve will close of itself. 

Bring the flywheel over to back center so that piston 
will compress the charge. With the flywheel in the hand, 
bring the piston back sharply two or three times, com- 
pressing the charge. This repeated compression causes 
a little heat to be liberated, which warms up the cylin- 
der inside. If the cylinder is very cold this compression 
may be repeated until the cylinder is sufficiently warm 
to ignite. When performing this preparatory compression 
the piston may be brought nearly up to the dead center 
but not quite. At last bring it over the dead center, and 
just as it passes over, snap the electric ignition bar. If 
an explosion follows the engine will be started. 

If the hot tube is used, the flywheel may be brought 
-around sharply each time so that the piston will pass the 
dead center, as an explosion will follow complete com- 
pression. If the explosion does not follow, the flywheel 
may be turned back again and brought up sharply past 



152 YOUNG EXGIXEERS GUIDE. 

the dead center. Each successive compression will warm 
up the cylinder a little till at last an explosion will take 
place and the engine will be started. 

More gasoline will be needed to start in cold \Aeather 
than in warm, and the starting supply should be regulated 
accordingly. Moreover, when the engine gets to going, 
the cylinder will warm up, more of the gasoline will va- 
porize, and a smaller supply will be needed. Then the 
throttle can be turned so as to reduce the supply. 

After the engine is started, the water jacket should be 
set in operation, and you should see that the cylinder 
lubrication is taking place as it ought. 

As the above method of starting the engine will not al- 
ways work well, especially in cold weather, w^hat are 
called ''self-starters'' are used. They are variously ar- 
ranged on different engines, but are constructed on the 
same general principle. This is, first, to pump air and 
gasoline into the cylinder instead of drawing it in by suc- 
tion. Sometimes the gasoline is forced in by an air com- 
pression tank. The engine is turned just past the back 
center, care having been taken to make sure that the 
stroke is the regular explosion stroke. This may be told 
by looking at the valve cam or shaft. If an electric igniter 
is used, it is set ready to snap by hand. If the tube 
igniter is used, a detonator is arranged in the cylinder, to 
be charged by the head of a snapping parlor match which 
can be exploded by hand. Holding the flywheel with on^ 
hand with piston just past back center, fill the compressed 
end of the cylinder by working the pump or turning on 
the air in compression tank till you feel a strong pressure 
on the piston through the flywheel. Then snap igniter 
or detonator and the engine is off. If throttle valve has 
not been opened, it may now be immediately opened. 

The skill comes in managing the flywheel with one 
hand, or one hand and a foot, and the igniter, etc., with 
the other hand. Care must be exercised not to get caught 
when the flywheel starts off. The foot must never be put' 
through the arm of the wheel, the wheel merely being 
held when necessary by the ball of the big toe, so that if 
the flywheel should start suddenly it would merely slip 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 1 53 

off the toe without carrying the foot around or unbalanc- 
ing the engineer. Until one gets used to it, it is better to 
have some one else manage the flywheel, while you look 
after the gasoline supply, igniter, etc. When used to it, 
one man can easily start any gasoline engine up to 15 
horsepower. 

WHAT TO DO WITH A GASOLINE ENGINE WHEN IT DOESN't 

WORK. 
Questions and Answers. 

Q. If the engine suddenly stops, what would you do? 

A. First, see that the gasoline feed is all right, plenty 
of gasoline in the tank, feed pipe filled, gasoline pump 
working, and then if valves are all in working order. 
Perhaps there may be dirt in the feed reservoir, or the pipe 
leading from it may be stopped up. If everything is 
right SO' far, examine the valves to see that they work 
freely and do not get stuck from lack of good oil, or 
from use of poor oil. Raise them a few times to see if 
they work freely. Carefully observe if the air valve is 
not tight in sleeve of gas valve. 

Q. What would be the cause of the piston's sticking 
in the cylinder? 

A. Either it was not properly lubricated, or it got too 
hot, the heat causing it to expand. 

Q. Are boxes on a gasoline engine likely to get hot? 

A. Yes, though not so likely as on a steam engine. 
They must be watched with the same care as they would 
be on a steam engine. If the engine stops, turn it by 
hand a few times to see that it works freely without 
sticking anywhere. 

O. Is the electric sparking device likely to get out of 
order? 

A. Yes. You can always test it by loosening one 
wire at the cylinder and touching it to the other to see 
that a spark passes between them. If there is no spark, 
there is trouble with the battery. 

Q. How should the batteries be connected up? 

A. A wire should pass from carbon of No. i to cop- 



154 YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 

per of No. 2 ; from carbon of No. 2 to copper of No. 3, 
etc., always from copper to carbon, never from carbon 
to carbon or copper to copper. Wire from last carbon 
to spark coil and from coil to switch, and from switch 
to one of the connections on the engine. Wire from 
copper of No. i to the other connection on the engine. 
In wiring, always scrape the ends of the wire clean and 
bright where the connection is to be made with any other 
metal. 

Q. What precautions can be taken to keep batteries 
in order? 

A. The connections between the cells can be changed 
every few days, No. i being connected with No. 3, No. 
3 with No. 5, etc., alternating them, but always making 
a single line of connection from one connection on cylin- 
der to first copper, from the carbon of that cell to copper 
of next cell, and so on till the circuit to the cylinder is 
completed. When the engine is not in operation, always 
throw out the switch, to prevent possible short circuiting. 
If battery is feeble at first, fasten wires together for half 
an hour at engine till current gets well started. 

Q. Is there likely to be trouble with the igniter in- 
side cylinder? 

A. There may be. You will probably find a plug that 
can be taken out so as to provide a peep hole. Never put 
your eye near this hole, for some gasoline may escape 
and when spark is made it will explode and put out your 
eye. Always keep the eye a foot away from the hole. 
Practice looking at the spark when you know it is all 
right and no gasoline is near, in order that you may get 
the right position at which to see the spark in case of 
trouble. In any case, always take pains to force out any 
possible gas before snapping igniter to see if the spark 
works all right. 

O. If there is no spark, what should be done? 

A. Clean the platinum points. This may be done 
by throwing out switch and cutting a piece of pine one- 
cighth of an inch thick and one-half inch wide, and rub- 
bing it between the points. It may be necessary to push 
cam out a trifle to compensate for wear. 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 155 

Q. How can you look into peep hole without endan- 
gering eyesight? 

A. By use of a mirror. 

Q. If the hot tube fails to w^ork. what may be done? 

A. Conditions of atmosphere, pressure, etc., vary so 
much that the length of the tube cannot always be de- 
termined. If a tube of the usual length fails to v/ork, 
try one a little longer or shorter, but not varying over 
i^ inches. 

O. When gas is used, what may interfere with gas 
supply ? 

A. Water in the gas pipes. This is always true of 
gas pipes not properly drained, especially in cold weather 
when condensation may take place. If water accumu- 
lates, tubes must be taken apart and blown out, and if 
necessary a drain cock can be put in at the lowest point. 

Q. What trouble is likely to be had with the valves? 

A. In time the seats will wear, and must be taken 
out and ground with flour or emery. 

O. Should the cylinder of a gasoline engine be kept 
as cool as it^ can be kept with running water ? 

A. No. It should be as hot as the hand can be borne 
upon it, or about lOO degrees. If it is kept cooler than 
this the gasoline will not gasefy well. If a tank is used, 
the circulation in the tank wall justify the temperature 
properly. The water may be kept at 175 degrees of 
temperature, and used for hot water heating. The ex- 
haust gases are also hot and may be used for heating 
by carrying in pipes coiled in a hot water heater. 

Q. Are water joints likely to leak? 

A. Yes. The great heating given the cylinder is lia- 
ble to loosen the water joints. They are best packed with 
asbestos so.aked in oil, sheets 1-16 inch thick. Old pack- 
ing should always be thoroughly cleaned off when new 
packing is put in. 

Q. How may the bearings be readjusted when worn? 

A. Usually there are liners to adjust bearing. In 
crank box adjust as in steam engine by tightening the 
key. 



156 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

Q. If you hear a loud explosion in the exhaust pipe 
after the regular explosion, should you be alarmed? 

A. No. iVll gas or gasoline engines give them at 
times and they are harmless. If the gas or gasoline fed 
to the engine is not sufficient to make an explosive mix- 
ture, the engine will perhaps miss the explosion, and 
live gas will go into the exhaust pipe. After two or three 
of these have accumulated an explosion may take place 
and the burned gases coming out of the port as hot 
flames will explode the live gas previously exhausted. 
Any missing of the regular explosion by the engine^ 
through trouble with battery, or the like, will cause the 
same condition. 

Q. When you get exhaust pipe explosions, what 
should you do? 

A. Turn on the fuel till the exhaust is smoky. Then 
you know you have fuel enough and more than enough. 
If the explosions still continue, conclude that the igniter 
spark is too weak, or does not take place. 

Q. What precaution must be taken in cold weather? 

A. The water must be carefully drained out of jacket. 

Q. Will common steam engine cylinder oil do for a 
gasoline engine? 

A. No. The heat is so great that only a special high 
grade mineral oil will do. Any oil containing animal 
fat will be worse than useless. 

Q. How can you tell if right amount of gas or gaso- 
line is being fed to engine to give highest power? 

A. Turn on as much as possible without producing 
smoke. A smokeless mixture is better than one which 
causes smoke. 

O. If you have reason to suppose gas may be in the 
cylinder, should you try to start cylinder? 

A. No. Empty the gas all out by turning the engine 
over a few times by hand, holding exhaust open if neces- 
sary. 

Q. How long will a battery run without recharging? 

A. The time varies. Usually not over three or four 
months. 



GAS AND GASOLINE KNGINKS. IC/ 

Q. Is it objectionable to connect an electric bell with 
an engine battery? 

A. Certainly. Never do it. 

Q. If your engine doesn't run, how many things are 
likely to be the trouble? 

A. Not more than four — compression, spark, gas 
supply, valves. 



GAS AXD GASOLINE ENGINES— Coxtixued 

Explanation of Principles. 

Reference has already been made to the gas engine, 
and a general description is given of this interesting and 
useful machine, but as no detailed explanation is there 
given of the principles controlling its action, it was 
deemed wise by the author to place before his readers, 
additional matter pertaining to the subject, and in doing 
so an effort has been made to present it in as simple 
and plain a manner as possible, in order that it may be 
easily within the comprehension of all. As the gas,, and 
gasoline engine are practically identical in principle, the 
same explanation and illustrations will, with the excep- 
tion of a few minor details, apply to both. 

All gas engines in practical use at the present time are 
two or four cycle,, as herein described, or are modifica- 
tions of these forms. Of these two types the four cycle 
machine has by far been the more generally adopted. 
\\t will now explain and illustrate the principles in- 
volved and the difference of action in the two types, tak- 
ing up the four cycle first. 

GAS EXGIXES 

Before proceeding farther, it will be well to explain 
the meaning of the word cycle as used in this connection. 

A CYCLE means a round of time or a round of events 
necessary to produce a certain result. 

As applied to the gas engine it means the round of 
movements or events to get one ''explosion'' as it is 
commonly called, or on impulse. In other words one 
working stroke. 

In the four cycle engine we have four distinct move- 
ments or events to get one ''explosion." 

158 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 



159 



Beginning with Fig. i we show the piston C, starting 
on the first or downward stroke, drawing in, by suction, 
the charge or mixture of air and fuel through valve A. 




This is the suction or intake stroke and is the first 
movement or event. 

The valve A is now closed by its spring, and in Fig 2 
we show the piston C returning, and compressing the 



l6o YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

charge into a small space, called the compression space, 
in the upper end of the cylinder. This is the compres- 
sion stroke and is the second movement. 

In Fig. 3 we show piston C almost to the top or end 
of the stroke. The mixture of air and gas is now under 
compression and at this point the electric spark is made 
which fires the charge. By the time the mixture is ig- 
nited, and the crank D reaches the center, the heat of the 
burning charge expands with great force and drives 
piston C down on its power stroke. This is the third 
movement. 

In Fig. 4 we show piston C nearly to the end of the 
stroke. As much of the power of the heat expansion 
has been delivered as can be obtained, and at this point 
the exhaust valve B is forced open by a cam, and the re- 
maining heat rushes out. Valve B is held open by the 
cam while piston C travels back to the top driving out 
the foul, spent gases. This is the scavenging stroke 
and is the fourth and last movement in the cycle of 
operation. When the piston C, reaches the top, valve B 
closes and the engine is ready to begin the cycle or round 
of events over again. 

We thus see that in a four cycle engine we have four 
movements — one cycle — giving it the short and well fitted 
name ^'four cycle." 

Two revolutions of the flywheel are used to get the 
four movements of the piston. Many four cycle engines 
are made horizontal, that is, with the cylinder lying 
down instead of standing up as shown in the illustra- 
tions. The movements or actions, however, remain the 
same. 

The two cycle engine draws in a charge, compresses 
it, fires it, and exhausts the burned gases, but it is all 
done in two strokes or movements, hence we call it a 
two cycle engine. In Figs. 5 and 6 we illustrate the 
action of the ordinary two cycle machine. 

In Fig. 5 the air is drawn in at A, and fuel from B, as 
regulated by needle valve C. This mixture is drawn into 
the crankcase as the piston goes up, and a charge that is 
in the cylinder above the piston is compressed at the 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES, 



l6l 



same time, thus drawing in a charge and compressing 
one, in one stroke or movement. When the piston 
reaches the top the compressed charge is fired, and the 
piston is driven down, dehvering the power of the burn- 
ing charge and also compressing the fresh charge just 
drawn into the crankcase. As the piston nears the end 
of the stroke, it uncovers the port E and the engine 
exhausts. An instant later the inlet port F is uncovered 




as the piston moves on, and the fresh charge now under 
compression in the crankcase rushes up through the inlet 
port F, and is turned upward by the projection on the 
end of the piston. 

As the new charge rushes in it is expected to drive 
out the burned gases at the exhaust port E. So we see 
the down stroke combines both the power and scaveng- 
ing events, while the up stroke combines the intake and 
compression events. Two movements do here what four 



162 



EXGIXEERS' GUIDE. 



are required to do in the four cycle engine. This typ6 
is known as the two port two cycle engine. 

In Fig. 6 air and fuel are drawn in at port A by the 
vacuum the piston produces, in the crankcase, on its 
upward stroke. By this construction the check valve, 
shown in Fig. 5, is not needed. Otherwise the action 
illustrated in Fig. 6 is the same as in Fig. 5. The type 
shown in Fig. 6 is known as the three port two cycle 
engine. 




Fior. 6 



There are many other forms for the mechanical con- 
struction of the two-cycle engine, but they all follow the 
same -general principles we have here illustrated and 
described. 

Owing to its simple construction and an impulse every 
two strokes or every revolution, the two cycle engine 
has proven very attractive to hundreds of inventors, and 
a great variety of designs haA^e been built. Simplicity of 
construction is iriuch to be desired in any machine if it 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. I O3 

produces the results we want. The results demanded 
of a gas engine are economy in the use of fuel and re- 
liability of action. 

The four cycle engine, in spite of its valves and gears, 
has given so much better practical results as a rule, that 
it has been adopted by most of the builders. The two 
cycle engine finds its best applications in service where 
the load and speed are comparatively uniform. 

Comparing the machines we have illustrated, we see 
a charge drawn in every revolution by the two cycle 
construction. Part of the charge may be lost, by leak- 
age through the bearings, when the piston comes down 
compressing it in the crankcase. 

The charge next passes to the cylinder and as the 
piston returns to the top it compresses the charge a 
second time, a loss of net power to the engine. 

As the two- cycle engine, when working properly, 
takes a charge and burns one every revolution, it would 
seem, at first thought, that it should give twice as much 
power as a four cycle machine of the same cylinder di- 
mensions. Owing to the losses we have mentioned, and 
the fact that the scavenging (driving out of the burned 
gases) is uncertain, the two cycle develops only 20 per 
cent to 50 per cent more power than the same size four 
cycle cylinder. As the bearings wear, the loss from the 
crankcase is apt to become greater, and the port action 
also changes slightly. 

One construction of the two cycle engine avoids crank- 
case compression, and the losses thereby, by a design 
similar to steam engine practice. The engine is made 
with a crosshead and piston rod. The end of the cyHn- 
der, usually left open by gas engine builders, is closed 
and fitted with a stuffing box through which the piston 
rod works exactly like the steam engine. This closed 
end of the cylinder is used, instead of the crankcase, for 
handling the miixture or charge. 

The principles involved in the two cycle engine de- 
pend largely o^. a certain velocity for the moving or 
transferring of the charge from the receiving and first 
compression chamber to the cylinder ; hence as wide a 



I04 VOrXG EXGIXEERS" GUIDE. 

variation in the speed cannot be permitted as .with the 
fonr cycle machine. 

FUELS FOR THE GAS ENGINE. 

Gas in its natural form, as found in some places, is 
the most convenient fuel known for the gas engine, espe- 
cially for stationary work. 

Only a few sections, however, are so favored, and in 
other places, and for portable or traction work the gas 
for the engine must be made or produced artificially from 
the most available substance. 

At the present time gasoline is used more than any- 
thing else owing to the ease with which it is carburetted, 
or converted into gas just as it is needed by the engine. 

Natural gas and gasoline have been used so much more 
than other fuels that the expression ''gas and gasoline 
engines" as frequently used is taken by some to mean 
two distinct types of engines. 

The expression as heretofore explained is misleading, 
for the general principles are precisely the same. The 
only difference in construction is in the compression used, 
and in the mixer or device for feeding the fuel ; it is a 
simple matter to change a gas engine to gasoline, or a 
gasoline engine to gas. 

AMien we say ''gas engine" we have covered the 
ground, and we understand that in using gasoline, oil, 
coal, etc., proper means must be provided for converting 
the fuel used into gas. 

]\Iany fuels will produce gas which may be used in 
the gas engine. Among these are coal, crude oil, coal 
oil or kerosene, gasoline, wood alcohol, spirits of various 
kinds, etc. 

A great many of the possible fuels are out of the 
question because of price, and others involve difficulties 
in the way of generating or producing the gas as needed 
and of proper quality. Some gases also involve objec- 
tionable features in the burning or combustion, as for 
example, the gas from crude oil (a very cheap fuel) car- 
vies with it a carbon element that is deposited on the head 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 165 

of the piston and on the walls of the compression space, 
making it necessary to clean these parts frequently. 

The difficulties in generating or producing gases, and 
in burning them to produce power,' are being rapidly 
overcome by new improvements and methods, and the 
advantages of the gas engine are increasing thereby. 

Gas from coal is proving to be a very cheap fuel for 
gas engines for heavy and stationary work. 

One ton of coal used in this way, as proved by actual 
practical results, w^ll do two to three times the work that 
it will do by burning it under a. steam boiler. 

As this book has reference, more especially, to gas 
engines for light portable and traction work, we will 
pay particular attention to gasoline as the available fuel 
possessing the most advantages. 

Carbureters or Mixers. — Several different types of 
mixers or carbureters for gasoline are in common use, 
the principle we illustrate in Fig. i, probably being most 
generally used. 

G is an overflow chamber holding the gasoline at a 
certain level in standpipe F, as indicated by the dotted 
line N. Gasoline flows into the chamber, G, from a 
pump, through pipe, L, and the overflow goes back to the 
tank through pipe I\I. 

As the air is drawn into the cylinder, through the air 
regulator E, it pulls gasoline with it from standpipe F, 
the amount being regulated by the needle valve H. 

This may be called the constant level overflow system, 
and is generally built in as part of the engine proper, 
in the plain, heavy engines now common for stationary 
work. 

If a float was placed in chamber G, operating a gaso- 
line inlet valve, and the gasoline tank was placed higher 
than the chamber, we would then have the float feed 
carbureter system. The float would hold the gasoline at 
a certain level in the standpipe just as the overflow in 
Fig. I. 

The float feed carbureter is generally a separate part 
or adjunct to the engine, and it is common for this part 
to be made by the manufacturer of parts or specialties, 



i66 YOUNG engineers' guide. 

Figure 7 is a cross-section of a float feed carbureter. 
The float M controls the valve O, and holds the gasoline 
at a certain level in the spray nozzle L. The air supply 
-in starting, or at slow speed of the motor comes through 
the narrow passage I, and in passing the spray nozzle L, 
it draws a small quantity of gasoline as regulated posi- 
tively by needle valve A. J is the connection to the en- 
gine and K is a throttle to. enable the operator to control 



A 







1, ) 



Fig. 7 

the quantity of mixture admitted to the cylinder. The 
air valve F, is held to its seat by a light spring G, with 
tension adjusted by screw B and locking device C. 

As the throttle K is opened, admitting more mixture 
to the engine, the air valve A opens wider, admitting 
more air. As the suction on the gasoline spray nozzle L 
is greater, more gasoline is drawn, thus keeping the pro- 
portionate mixture approximately right under the throttle, 
and at the various engine speeds. Both air and gasoline 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 167 

are thus automatically measured, under the varying con- 
ditions. 

Figure 8 shows a float carbureter with a different 
principle. 

A is the connection; B, gasoline needle valve; C, con- 
stant air inlet: D, compensating, cv automatic air valve, 
with spring tension regulated by E ; F is the gasoline 



lA 




f T 



Fig. 8 

pipe connection ; G is a throttle in the air passage C ; H, 
float chamber ; I, needle valve control lever ; J, cam, oper- 
ating mixture throttle lever; L, nut for adjusting lever to 
position desired. 

In starting, the constant air passage C, is partly closed, 
to secure more suction on the gasoline. As the throttle, 
operated by lever K is opened, the cam J moves lever I, 
gradually opening gasoline needle valve B, admitting 



i68 YOUNG engineers' guide. 

more gasoline in proportion to the increased air supply 
coming through the air valve D. 

In this carbureter the air supply is automatically con- 
trolled, but the gasoline is positively regulated. 

It is evident that the gasoHne tank must be higher than 
the carbureter to supply gasoline to the flat valve by 
gravity. 

The gasoline may be supplied from a lower level by 
air pressure in the gasoline tank, but as this is compli- 
cating the mechanism of the outfit, it is rarely used. 

It will be observed that the general principles of the 
overflow and feed float systems are the same. 

Another very common method of feeding gasoline is 
by means of a mixing valve as illustrated in Fig. 5. 

The gasoline, regulated by the needle valve C, feeds 
to the seat of the mixing valve. When the piston draws 
in air from A, the mixing valve is lifted, gasoline flows 
in and is mixed with the air. 

At the end of the suction stroke the valve closes, shut- 
ting off the gasoline. The gasoline may be suppHed to 
the valve by gravity or by air pressure, the same as w^ith 
the float feed system. 

A fault with the ordinary mixing valve is found in tlie 
fact that, as the valve closes, the fuel remaining on the 
seat is projected backward by the angle of the seat, caus- 
ing the valve to ''spit'' or ''slobber" the fuel. 

In all these systems of feeding, the gasoline is so 
volatile that, by mixing with the air as it is drawn in and 
in passing into the heated cylinder, it is carburetted rr 
vaporized, so that by the time the spark is made, the 
mixture is formed and ready to be ignited. 

Fuel gas for gas engines is made from the heavy 
crude oils by subjecting the oil to heat in a special pro- 
ducer apparatus, that makes a gas vapor from the vola- 
tile parts of the oil, while separating and retaining the 
heavy, solid matter. 

Too much gas in the cylinder will not burn for want of 
sufficient air, just. the same as a furnace fire will not burn 
if the dampers are closed. 

Too much fuel turned on in starting is a frequent 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 169 

cause of a gas engine refusing to start. In this case 
close the needle valve, and turn the engine until the sur- 
plus fuel has been driven out. 

No matter what kind of fuel gas is used, the principle 
of feeding to the engine remains the same — a certain 

QUANTITY OF GAS WITH THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF AIR, mUSt 

be taken for each ''explosion" or impulse. 

It must also be remembered that solid and liquid fuels ■ 
must be converted into gas before the engine Vvdll run. 

In using gasoline the natural heat of the air is gener- 
ally depended upon for vaporizing, or making enough 
gas to start the engine. In the winter season the air fre- 
quently does not possess the required warmth, or heat 
for starting, often causing trouble to the inexperienced 
operator. In this case the necessary heat to supply the 
first charges of gas must be provided. 

After the first few ''explosions" there will be enough 
heat in the engine cylinder to vaporize the gasoline in tlie 
coldest vreather. 

Gases vary a great deal in the heat power or heat units 
possessed, and for this reason different gases w411 
increase, or decrease the power of an engine of given 
size. 

Gas from gasoline is very powerful, furnishing another 
excellent reason for its common use with gas engines. 

Compression. — Compressing the charge or mixture of 
air and gas, before igniting it increases the force of the 
"explosion." 

The higher the compression can be successfully carried, 
the greater will be the power derived from a given 
amount of fuel. 

. The compression heats the mixture rapidly, and, if the 
compression is carried too high, this heat will fire the 
charge before time for the spark, and before the piston 
reaches the end of the stroke. This would cause some 
. of the force to be applied in the backward direction, and 
cause the engine to "pound" or perhaps stop. 

The amount of compression that can be successfully 
used, depends on, first, the kind of fuel gas that is to be 
used ; second, the speed for which the engine is designed. 



t5 



170 YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE. 

and third, the uniform heat of the cyHnder walls and head 
at all times. 

Different gases require higher or lower compression 
to obtain the best results, as for example, natural .gas will 
admit of much .higher compression than the gas from 
S"asoline. 

An engine built for high speed will carry a higher 
compression than could be used at low speed. The piston 
coming up to the end of the stroke so much faster enables 
the crank to pass the center before the impulse begins, 
even though the charge should be self -ignited from the 
heat of the high compression. Reliable, even tempera- 
ture of the cylinder w^alls and head is of great importance 
for a high compression, for if the walls become over- 
heated at times, the compression heat will be greater; if 
the compression is already up to the limit, this extra heat 
will cause pre-ignition, or firing of the charge too soon. 

While it is desirable, from the standpoint of economy 
in fuel, and maximum or greatest power for a given 
cylinder dimension, to use the highest compression pos- 
sible, yet no rule can be given that wnll fit different makes 
of engines for the reasons given above. 

The manufacturer must be depended upon for the 
highest compression practical in his particular engine, to 
suit the design, speed, and fuel to be used. 

As we are referring to gasoline as the most convenient 
and practical fuel for light portable, and traction work, 
we might say that a fair average compression for this 
fuel would be 60 lbs. gauge pressure, but the reader will 
understand that it may be more or less depending on the 
conditions as stated. This would be equal to about five 
atmospheres — that is, the volume of the cylinder and 
compression space would be squeezed up into a space one- 
fifth the total volume. 

This amount of compression w^ill, under proper condi- 
tions, give about 300 lbs. per square inch, heat expansive 
force, or "explosive" pressure at the moment of com- 
plete ignition. 

A compression of 40 lbs. gauge pressure will give an 
initial ''explosive'' force of about 225 lbs. per square inch. 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. IJl 

SO we see, as stated, that the net workmg force increases 
as we increase the compression. 

The gauge pressure of the compression may be deter- 
mined by the method described under the heading ''How 
to Test the Condition of an Engine/' 

If a different gas fuel, from that for which the engine 
was sold, is to be used, it would be advisable to write 
the manufacturer of the engine as to the proper com- 
pression, as shown by factory tests, and how to change 
the compression space to best advantage. This will save 
much time and trouble in experimenting to obtain the 
best possible results. 

The efficiency and economy of a gas engine depends 
in large measure on perfect compression, and any leak- 
ages in rings, valves, packings or porous cyhnder walls, 
directly affect the working of the machine. 

The building of an engine for the highest possible 
compression is a matter of close and careful study for the 
designer only, hence we will not go into details of con- 
struction. 

In the operator's hands any make of engine must be 
carefully guarded against leakages of compression, if the 
highest possible efficiency and fuel economy are desired. 

Ignition Apparatus. — In the early stages of the de- 
velopment of the gas engine, the charge of air and gas 
was ignited by a hot tube. This tube, with the outer end 
closed, was screwed into position on the engine and con- 
nected with the compression space. The tube was en- 
closed by a casing lined with heavy asbestos, and w^as 
kept at an intense heat by a gas fire within the casing. A 
part of the charge or mixture was forced into the tube 
by the compression stroke when it would be ignited by 
the fierce heat of the outer closed end. 

This system, clumsy and crude in the light of late 
improvements, is known as hot tube ignition. It required 
time in starting to properly heat the tube ; it was wasteful 
in the use of fuel, and the fire to heat the tube was a 
source of danger. Waste of fuel was due to maintaining 
the fire to heat the tube, and to the fact that the time of 



172 YOUNG EXGINEERS^ GUIDE. 

ignition was not under perfect control. Tubes burn>ij 
out frequently added to the troubles. 

The ignition or firing of the charge by an electric spark, 
under control at all times, is one of the great improve- 
ments in the gas engine, and has had much to do with 
bringing the machine into favor with power users. 

The spark is made on the inside of the cylinder, thus 
eliminating the danger of fire with the hot tube. By this" 
improvement the gas engine became a safe power gener- 
ating machine in the strictest sense of the word. 

Electric ignition has come into such general use that 
the hot tube is now seldom made, unless for emergency 
use and most manufacturers do not furnish it at all. 

There are two systems of electric ignition in general 
use, viz: the primary, or make and break, and the sec- 
ondary or jump spark. Both of these systems must have 
a source of electric current ; a coil for storing, and dis- 
charging the current, a device for making and breaking 
the circuit, and an igniter or spark plug as the case may 
be. 

The source of electric current for either system may be 
a battery, or a generator driven by the engine. Where a 
generator is used it is generally considered necessary to 
have batteries for starting, and switch over to the gener- 
ator after the engine gets up speed. Most generators 
require more speed, to furnish the necessary current, 
than the operator would be able, or willing to give it in 
starting the engine. 

The spark coil acts as a sort of reservoir to store up 
current when the circuit is made, and to discharge it whea 
the circuit is broken, and this discharge between , two 
points, inside the compression space, makes the spark 
that fires the charge. 

With the make and break system, the circuit is made 
and broken inside the compression space, giving this sys- 
tem its name. 

The contact, or make and break points are set in a 
block or carrier, the whole forming a device known as 
the igniter. 

The contact points are called electrodes, one of which 



CAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 1 73 

is made stationary and insulated by a non-conducting ma- 
terial f roni the other parts of the engine. The other elec- 
trode is movable, and the mechanism of the engine causes 
it to form a contact, inside the compression space, with the 
insulated stationary electrode, just an instant before time 
for the spark. During this very short time of contact the 
current from the battery or generator flows through and 
charges the coil. At the right moment the movable elec- 
trode is snapped back, breaking the contact with the insu- 
lated electrode, and the current, stored in the coil, is dis- 
charged across the gap between the contact points or 
electrodes, causing the spark. The quicker the break is 
made the better and stronger will be the spark produced. 

The spark coil for primary or make and break ignition 
consists of a bundle or core of soft iron wire around 
which is wound a quantity of insulated copper wire called 
a primary winding. The current from this coil is a pri- 
mary current, which explains why make and break igni- 
tion is also called primary ignition. 

For the secondary or jump spark system the spark coil 
receives another winding, of several thousand feet of fine 
insulated wire, called the secondary winding. 

This makes a jump spark, or high tension coil as the 
secondary winding carries a current of high voltage. The 
electric circuit for this system of ignition is interrupted 
at any suitable, convenient point on the engine, and 
causes a spark to jump between two stationary points in- 
side the combustion chamber. 

These two points are carried by a spark plug that is 
screwed into an opening to the combustion chamber, and 
one of the points must be insulated so the current will 
pass around and jump the gap provided. The device for 
interrupting the circuit in the jump spark system is a 
timer, sometimes called the "commutator" and is shown in 
Fig. 9 at D. The break of the contact points of the timer 
must be very quick, and produces a spark at the gap be- 
tween the points of the spark plug. 

It has become quite common to provide the spark coil 
with an automatic vibrator: the instant the timer makes 
the circuit, the automatic vibrator sets up a vibrating 



174 



YOUXG EXGIXEERS' GUIDE. 



motion producing a string of sparks at the plug instead 
of one. W^ith the automatic vibrator, the very quick part- 
ing of the timer contact is not essential. 

The merits of the vibrator as against the plain jump 
spark coil have been much discussed. Some authorities 
claim the plain coil is less liable to get out of 
order, not having a delicate vibrator adjustment; that 
making one good spark does the work, which is all that 
is required. 




Fig. 9 
Wiring Diagram — Jump Spark Ignition. 
A — Batteries. 
B— Switch. 
C — Jump Spark Coil. 
D— Timer or "Commutator." 
E — Spark Plug". 
F — Ground Wire to Engine. 

It is claimed for the vibrator coil that a more sure 
and rapid ignition is obtained; that the delicate adjust- 
ment of the vibrator is a simple matter, and not a dis- 
advantage in the hands of the intelligent operator, and 
that the necessary C[uick make and break of the circuit, 
being made automatically, insures perfect ignition at 
any speed of the engine. As the vibrator coil has come 
into general use it must be conceded that the majority 
of users think it has advantages which overbalance its 
disadvantages. 

The illustration, Fig. 9, shows how to connect two 
sets of batteries to a switch so one set mav be used whil^ 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. I75 

the ot^er is- out of circuit — thus holding an extra battery 
in readiness for immediate service should the set in use 
fail. 

When the switch B, is in the central position as shown, 
both batteries are out of circuit. 

In connecting up a jump spark ignition outfit it will 
generally be found that the manufacturer of the coil 
has marked the terminals or binding posts. ''Bat.'' 
stamped on the coil means to attach the battery to that 
binding post. /'Com." means the connection to the timer 
or "commutator/' while "Sec." denotes the terminal of 
the secondary winding, to be connected to the spark plug. 

Should there be two secondary terminals on the coil, 
one may be connected to the terminal marked "com." 
This is usually done within the coil, leaving but three 
outside connections as shown in Fig. 9. 

The switch is placed between the battery and the coil 
and it is understood that the "Bat." connection on the 
coil is carried to the switch and then on to the battery, 

A generator, made for jump spark ignition may be 
connected to the switch instead of one of the batteries, 
similar to the connections for primary ignition, illustrated 
in Fig. 10, which shows the wiring for a make and 
break ignition outfit, using a battery for starting and 
connections to switch the generator into circuit as soon 
as the engine gets up the speed necessary to make the 
generator deliver the required current. 

Some generators are advertised as furnishing current 
at a very low speed and thereby dispensing with the 
battery. Alost generators, however, will require more 
speed than the operator would be able or willing to give 
it in starting the engine. 

It is important, in connecting up an ignition outfit, 
to see that the wire terminals, and binding posts are 
clean and that the connections are made secure. The 
ground wires may be attached at any convenient point 
on the engine, but paint and grease must be removed to 
secure a good circuit. 

Flexible wiring is less liable to break at the point of 
connection and cause trouble. A solid copper wire will 



176 



YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 



frequently break close to the binding post and remain 
in position apparently sound. 

Spark coils are manufactured by specialists and their 
manufacture, on a large scale, has been so well developed 
that the selling price is too low for the engine manufac- 
turer to think of making his own coils. 

The wire, from the secondary winding of the jump 
spark coil to the spark plug, should be heavily insulated, 
or care must be taken to keep it clear of other parts that 
would complete a circuit, owing to the high voltage cur- 
rent that would leak and short circuit through a light in- 



^r\ 




Fig. 10 
Wiring Diagram — Battery and Generator. Make and Break 

Ignition. 

A— Battery. 

B— Switch. 

C — vSimple Primary Coil. 

D — Magneto or Generator. 

EE — Ground Wires to Engine. 

F — Wires to Stationary Electrode of Igniter. 

sulation. This is a frequent cause of trouble with jump 
spark ignition. A light or faulty insulation on the second- 
ary wire will often deceive the inexperienced operator. 

A bare wire, from the secondary binding post on the 
coil to the plug, would be better than a defective insula- 
tion, for with the bare wire every one would know it 
must not touch other objects that would conduct the 
current. 

There is a great deal of discussion among gas engine 
builders and users concernins: the relative merits of the 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. I77 

two systems of electric ignition, but as both give good 
service and satisfaction under proper conditions, it is a 
matter that can be decided only in individual cases. It 
is argued for the make and break system that the low 
voltage current is less liable to short circuit ; that the 
coil is much cheaper, and less liable to go wrong', and 
that a bigger and better spark is made. 

For the jump spark ignition a great advantage is 
claimed by doing away with the movable electrode, its 
wear and consequent leakage from the combustion cham- 
ber; that the time of the spark can be easily retarded 
-and advanced at will to suit all speeds and conditions, 
and that if the coil and high tension current are handled 
intelligently they will not fail, but will go on indefinitely 
doing their work faithfully. 

It is generally considered that jump spark ignition is 
better suited for high speed engines, while the low speed, 
heavily constructed engines commonly used for station- 
ary work are usually equipped with the make and break 
system. So far as practical application is concerned 
either system can be applied to suit any condition. 

As both are good, the reader will be left to decide for 
himiself as his ovv-n experience or preference may direct. 

Timing the Valves and Spark — The valves of the gas 
engine are almost universally of the poppet variety, 
and are operated by cams and springs w^hich produce a 
very quick opening and closing action. In order to ob- 
tain a high efficiency in the working of the engine it is 
necessary that the valves open, and that the spark occur 
at the proper moment, to produce the best results. The 
inlet valve A, shown in Fig. i, is of the automatic type, 
being opened by the suction stroke of the piston. While 
many gas engines are built this way, it is quite common 
to open the inlet, as well as the exhaust valve mechan- 
ically, or by means of a cam operated by the engine. 

The automatic inlet valve, as its name implies, is self 
timed, opening at the beginning, and closing at the end 
of the suction stroke. 

The cams to open all mechanically operated valves 
must be set or timed with reference to the position of 



1/8 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

the crank and piston. The exhaust valve should be 
opened about 40° before the crank on its power stroke 
reaches center. 

In an engine with 6'' stroke, the piston w^ould be about 
iY' from the end of the stroke. 

This last part of the stroke is not effective in deliver- 
ing povv'Cr to the crank shaft, and the exhaust valve is 
opened thus early to get rid of the remaining heat as 
soon as it becomes useless and thus have the cylinder in 
better shape to receive the next charge. The exhaust 
valve should not close before the end of the scavenging 
stroke, and not later than 20° past dead center. 

If the inlet valve is operated mechanically, the cam 
should be set to open and close the valve when the crank 
has passed the dead centers 10°, to 20° according to 
the speed of the engine. 

The late closing of the inlet valve on high speed en- 
gines is to allow the inertia or moving force of the incom- 
ing charge to increase the power of the cylinder by in- 
creasing the amount or volume of mixture taken in. Some 
claim the crank may pass the center 30° to 40° before 
the mixture stops coming in, although the piston has 
traveled back on the compression stroke one-half inch or 
more. The possible advantage is a slight increase of 
powder from a cylinder of given size. 

The timing of the ignition is of much greater import- 
ance than was realized for many years after the gas en- 
gine came into use. Although a proper mixture under 
compression fires easily and burns ra;^idly, yet it re- 
quires a little space of time, and the spark must occur 
far enough ahead of the center so the charge will be 
aflame, and the expansion taking place when the piston 
and crank start on the power stroke. If the spark 
comes too late, a part of the effective impulse stroke is 
lost, while if the spark is made too early, the heat ex- 
pansion begins before the crank reaches the center and 
some of the power is thus delivered in a backward direc- 
tion. This will cause the engine to ''pound'' or perhaps 
stop, if the ignition is very much too early. 

The correct time for the spark depends on the fuel 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. I79 

Used, and speed of the engine. At high speeds the spark 
must be advanced or made furtlier ahead of the center 
to give the necessary time for ignition, while at low 
speeds the spark must be retarded or made later. 

It is necessary to provide high speed engines with a 
device for retarding the spark in starting, and changing 
to the advanced position after the engine gets up speed. 

For very high speeds the spark must be produced 
somewhere from 60° to 90° ahead of center and this 
position, with the slow speed in starting, would deliver 
all the power in a backward direction, causing the en- 
gine to ''kick." 

Owing to the greatly varying speeds used it is im- 
possible to give a set rule for the correct point of igni- 
tion, but the proper timing of the spark can be readily 
determined by a little experimenting. The operator will 
soon learn the correct position by observing the results 
of early or late ignition. 

It is needless to say, that if the spark is too far ad- 
vanced in starting the operator will soon find it out, for 
the engine is sure to make a ''kick" about it. 

A. gas engine will run with the valves and spark con- 
siderably out of time, but its full power and efficiency 
will not be developed unless the timing is right. 

As the inlet and exhaust valves, in proper turn, only 
open every second revolution of the crank shaft (with 
the four-cycle engine), the reader will understand that 
the cams are located on the back geared shaft, which 
runs at just one-half the speed of the crankshaft. 

In timing the valves the question naturally arises wdien 
is the crank exactly at the end of the stroke or on "dead 
center ?" 

The crank travels a considerable distance at each end 
of the stroke, with but little perceptible movement of 
the piston and this fact gives considerable range in set- 
ting the valves while not greatly affecting the results. 

Some users, especially of small engines, guess at the 
center by noting the piston's movement, but for the 
benefit of readers who insist on kuozving when the crank 
is at center, we illustrate in Fig. 1 1 the following method : 



i8o 



YOUNG EXGIXEERS" GUIDE. 



With the crank turned to one side of center, as shown, 
insert a rod A, through an opening in the head of the 
engine allowing the rod to rest against the piston. Mark 
on the rod at B to show the distance to the piston "and 
also mark the balance wheel at a fixed, stationary pointer 
C provided on the engine. Now^ turn the engine until 
the crank is. on the other side of center as shown by 
the dotted lines. This position is determined by bring- 




Fig. 11 

ing the piston to the same distance from point B as 
shown by the mark we placed on the rod A. 

Now make another mark on the balance wheel at the 
stationary pointer C. The two marks D and E on the 
balance wheel are at equal distances from the central 
position for the crank, and it follows that in bisecting 
or equally dividing the distance between the marks D 
and E and turning the engine so the central mark F, 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. l8l 

comes to the stationary pointer C, we have thus brought 
the crank to the ''dead'' center. 

The opposite center is determined in a hke manner. 
The crank is thus brought at each end of the piston 
stroke exactly to the center Hne K-L. Having estab- 
Hshed the center we can readily calculate the degrees 
from this for the opening and closing of the valves. 
The circumference of the wheel is ahvays equal to" 
360 degrees. If we divide 360 by the circumference 
in inches we will know how many degrees in each inch. 
To find a point 40 degrees from ''dead" center divide 
40 degrees by the number of degrees in an inch of the 
circumference. The result will be the number of inches 
from center to the point desired. 

In the illustration, Fig. 11, it will be noticed that one 
of the valves has been removed to insert the rod A 
through the valve stem guide. By using a rod that fits 
the guide the two positions of the piston, at equal 
distance from the center can be accurately determined. 
For engines that do not have the valves in the head 
any other openings, such as for the spark plug or an 
igniter, may be used, but it would be advisable to use 
a special plug, or plate to fit the opening through which 
a hole, to fit rod A, may be drilled. 

The above method for locating dead center is the 
same that is generally used for the steam engine except 
that the mark B on the rod A is made on the crosshead 
and guides. 

As the gas engine ordinarily has no crosshead the proc- 
ess w^e have described and illustrated will be found* 
equally effective and simple, while, as with the steam 
engine, it is mechanically correct. 

TESTING THE CONDITION OF A GAS ENGINE. 

First see that the valves are correctly timed. 

The next thing to know is that the fuel reaches the 
mixing chamber or carbureter. Now look after the com- 
pression to see if there is any serious leakage through the 
rings, valves or packed joints. 

Oil the engine thoroughh^ using care to know that the 
cylinder w^alls are Avell lubricated with good gas engine 



l82 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

oil, then as a quick, ordinary compression test, sufficient 
for practical purposes, the engine is revolved bringing 
the piston up quickly on the compression stroke and hold- 
ing it at the highest point of compression to see how soon 
the pressure will disappear. This may properly be called 
''feeling of the compression" and after a little experience 
the operator will be able to judge pretty accurately as to 
what results may expected of the engine. 

The only recourse when serious leakage through the 
rings occurs, is new rings, or perhaps re-boring of the 
cylinder, new piston and new rings. 

This is a job for the machinist. 

After knowing that the fuel gets to the engine in 
proper time, and that the compression is all right, next 
look after the ignition apparatus, a very important part 
of every gas power machine. 

The make and break system may be tested out as 
follows : Throw in the switch, then detach the wire from 
the stationary, insulated electrode of the igniter, and 
scrape it on the binding post from which it was re- 
moved. . If a spark is produced with the igniter contact 
points open it will prove the insulation of the stationary 
electrode to be faulty. Should no spark appear, next 
close the contact points and scrape the wire again on 
the binding post. A good spark should now be produced. 
If not, go over the wiring very carefully to see if all 
connections are clean and secure, and to look for possible 
leakage of all the current, or short circuiting as it is 
commonly called. 

Next remove the igniter to see if the contact points 
are corroded thus preventing the passage of the current. 

While having the igniter detached it is a good plan 
to hold it to the engine and snap or break the contact 
points apart as when the engine is running. If, with the 
contact points clean, connections all properly made and 
no short circuits, a spark is not yet obtained, next look 
after the source of current (battery or generator as the 
case may be), and the trouble will soon be located in 
an exhausted battery, or in case of a generator it may 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 183 

be bad brushes or possible loss of speed if the generator 
is driven by belt or friction. 

Once in a great while the spark coil may fail, but 
this is a rare occurrence, if the ignition apparatus is kept 
in a dry place as it should be. 

Briefly stated, see that the engine gets the fuel in the 
proper time ; see that there is no serious leakage and see 
that a good spark is produced at the right time. 

These things in proper order and assuming, of course, 
in case liquid fuel -is used, that the proper condition is 
present for carburetion, or vaporization, the engine is 
ready to run and may be depended upon. 

The routine for testing a jump spark ignition outfit 
is similar to that just described for the primary or make 
and break system. By detaching the spark plug and 
allowing it to rest on the engine, so the circuit will be 
the same as when the plug is in position, work the cir- 
cuit interrupting device (if a plain jump spark coil is 
used), or in case of a vibrator coil, turn the engine until 
the circuit is made by the timer, w^hen the vibrator, if 
properly adjusted, will set up the buzzing sound familiar 
to users of vibrator coils. 

A good spark should now appear between the points 
of the spark plug. If not, detach the Avire from the plug, 
and holding the end of the wire within one-sixteenth to 
one-eighth inch of some part of the engine again work 
the trembler or make contact with the timer. 

If a spark can now be produced it proves the insula- 
tion of the plug faulty, while should no spark appear 
next look for bad connections, short circuit or further 
back to the source of current as with the make and- 
break system. 

Now, knowing that the engine takes the charge and 
fires it properly, next see that the cooling system is in 
working order. If the cooling jacket, or passages formed 
in the castings of the cylinder and head for allowing the 
cooling element, oil, water or other liquid to circulate, 
should become clogged or choked the heat of the cylinder 
will rise too high, so in testing the condition of a machine 
we must examine the cooling facilities, and know tliat 



1 84 



YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE. 



sufficient radiation of excess heat is maintained. This 
means, of course, that the proper circulation of the heat 
carrying agent (whether it be the water, oil, or air) 
must be provided. 

The compression test described in the fore-going is 
a quick, ofifhand way of sizing up the running condi- 
tion of small and medium sized engines, but it can only 
give an approximate idea of the amount of the compres- 
sion. A very good method of obtaining the gauge pres- 
sure of the compression is illustrated in Fig. ii. 

A pressure gauge G, is attached to a receiving cham- 
ler H, which is connected to the compression chamber of 
the engine by a globe valve I, and check valve J. 

Run the engine up to full speed, then throw out the 
switch and immediately open the valve I. The highest 
compression pressure will be accumulated in the cham- 
ber H, and the gauge will register the pounds per square 
inch. 

The valve I must not be opened while the engine is 
yet firing the charges, but it should be opened very 
quickly after the firing has stopped so the compression 
pressure may be registered at practically the normal 
running speed of the engine. 

This test of the compression is not necessary to the 
successful care and operation of a gas engine for the 
manufacturer of the machine has, of course, figured out 
the best compression for the kind of fuel to be used and 
the work to be done. 

We describe and illustrate the gauge test for the ben- 
efit of readers who may wish to make a deeper study of 
the gas engine, and gas engine principles than is neces- 
sary for the ordinary user. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. 



^\ threshing machine, though large, is a comparatively 
simple machine, consisting of a cylinder with teeth work- 
ing into other teeth which are usually concaved (this 
primary part really separates the grain from the husk), 
and rotary fan and sieves to separate grain from chaff, 
and some sort of stacker to carry off the straw. The 
common stacker merely carries off the straw by some 
endless arrangement of slats working in a long box ; 
while the so-called ''wind stacker" is a pneumatic de- 
vice for blowing the straw through a large pipe. It has 
the advantage of keeping the straw under more perfect 
control than the common stacker. The separation of the 
grain from the straw is variously effected by different 
manufacturers, there being three general types, called 
apron, vibrating, and agitating. 

The following list of parts packed inside the J. I. 
Case separator (of the agitative type) when it is shipped 
will be useful for reference in connection with any type 
of separator : 



2 Hopper arms. Right and 

Left, 
I Hopper bottom, 

1 Hopper rod with thumb 

nut, 

2 Feed tables, 

2 Feed table legs, 

2 Band cutter stands and 

bolts, 
T Large crank shaft, 
1 Grain auger with 1223 

T. pulley and 11 54 T., 

Box, 



Tailings auger, 

Elevator spout, 

Elevator shake arm, com- 
plete, 

Set fish-backs, for straw- 
rack. 

Elevator pulley, 529 T., 

Beater pulley, 6-inch 1254 
T., or 4-inch 1255 T., 

Elevator drive pullev 1673 
T., 

Crank pulley to drive 
grain auger 1605 T., 



186 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. 



187 



J Cylinder pulley to drive 

crank 4-inch 973 T., or 

6-inch 1085 T,, 
I Cylinder pulley to drive 

fan 1347 T., 1348 T., 

or 1633 T., 
I Fan pulley, 1244 T., or 

1231 T, 
I Belt tightener, complete, 

with pulley, 



I Belt reel, 5016 T., or 1642 
T., with crank and bolt, 

4 Shoe sieves^ 

4 Slice rods, with nuts and 
washers, 

I Conveyor extension, 

1 Sheet iron tail board, 

2 Tail board castings 1654 

T., and 1655 T. 



In addition to these are the parts of the stacker. 

As each manufacturer furnishes all needed directions 
for putting the parts together, we will suppose the sepa- 
rator is in working condition. 

A new machine should be set up and run for a couple 
of hours before attempting to thresh any grain. The 
oil boxes should be carefully cleaned, and all dirt, cin- 
ders, and paint removed from the oil holes. The grease 
cups on cylinder, beater and crank boxes should be 
screw^ed down after being filled with hard oil, moder- 
ately thin oil being used for other parts of the machine. 
Before putting on the belts, turn the machine by hand 
a few times to see that no parts are loose. Look into 
the machine on straw^ rack and conveyor. 

First connect up belt with engine and run the cylinder 
only for a time. Screw down the grease cup lugs when 
necessary, and see that no boxes heat. Take off the 
tightener pulley, clean out oil chambers and thoroughly 
oil the spindle. Then oil each separate bearing in turn, 
seeing that oil hole is clean, and that pulley or journal 
W'Orks freely. The successive belts may then be put on 
one at a time, until the stacker belt is put on after its 
pulleys have been oiled. Especially note which belts are 
to run crossed — usually the main belt and the stacker belt. 
You can tell by noting which way the machinery must 
run to keep the straw moving in the proper direction. 

Oiling on the first run of a machine is especially im- 
portant, as the bearings are a trifle rough and more liable 
to heat than after machine has been used for some tin.v 



iS8 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 




O 
< 

O 

O 
<1 



fa 
O 



O 

H 

E 
02 



It is well to oil a 
shaft while it runs, 
since the motion 
helps the oil to work 
in over the whole sur- 
face. 

The sieves, con- 
caves, check board 
and blinds must be 
adjusted to the kind 
of grain to be 
threshed. When they 
have been so adjust- 
ed the machine is 
read}^ to thresh. 

SETTING SEPARATOR. 

It is important 
that the machine be 
kept perfectly steady, 
and that it be level 
from, side to side, 
though its being a 
little higher or lower 
at one end or the 
other may not mat- 
ter much. If the lev- 
el sidewise is not per- 
fect the grain will 
have a tendency to 
work over to one 
side. A spirit leve) 
should be used. 

One or more of 
the wheels should Ijc 
set in holes, according 
to the unevenneis of 
the ground, and 
the rear wheels 
should be well block- 
ed. Get the holes 



MOW TO RUN x\ THRESHING MACHINE. 1S9 

ready, judging as well as possible what will give a true 
level and a convenient position. Haul the machine into 
position and see that it is all right before uncoupling the 
engine. If holes need redigging to secure proper level, 
machine may be pulled out and backed in again by the 
engine. When machine is high in front it can easily be 
leveled when engine or team have been removed, by 
cramping the front wheels and digging in front of one 
and behind the other, then pulling the tongue around 
square. 

Block the right hind wheel to prevent the belt drawing 
machine forward. Always carry a suitable block to 
have one handy. 

In starting out of holes or on soft ground, cramp the 
front axle around, and it will require only half the power 
to start that would be required by a straight pull. 

In setting the machine, if the position can be chosen, 
choose one in which the straw will move in the general 
direction of the wind, but a little quartering, so that dust 
and smoke from engine will be carried away from the 
men and the straw stack. In this position there is less 
danger from fire when wood is used. 

THE CYLINDER. 

The cylinder is arranged with several rows of teeth 
working into stationary teeth in w^hat is called the con- 
cave. It is important that all these teeth be kept tight, 
and that the cylinder should not work from side to side. 
The teeth are liable to get loose in a new machine, and 
should be tightened up frequently. A little brine on each 
nut will cause it to rust slightly and help to hold it in 
place. If the cylinder slips endwise even a sixteenth of 
an inch, the teeth will be so much nearer the concaves 
on one side and so much farther away from them on the 
other side. Where the}^ are close, they will crack the 
grain ; where they are wide apart they will let the stravv^ 
go through without threshing or taking out the grain. 
So it is important that the cylinder and its teeth run 
true and steady. If the teeth get bent in any way, they 
must be straightened. 



190 VOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

The speed of the cyUnder is important, since its pul- 
ley gives motion to the other parts of the machine, and 
this movement must be up to a certain point to do the 
work well. A usual speed for the cylinder pulley is 
1,075 revolutions per minute, up to 1,150. 

There is always an arrangement for adjusting the cylin- 
der endwise, so that teeth will come in the middle. This 
should be adjusted carefully when necessary. The end 
play to avoid heating may be about 1-64 of an inch. It 
may be remembered that the cylinder teeth carry the straw 
to the concaves, and the concaves do the threshing. 

THE CONCAVES. 

The concaves are to be adjusted to suit the kind of 
grain threshed. When desiring to adjust concaves, Hft 
them up a few times and drop sO' as to jar out dust. 
Wedging a block of wood between cylinder teeth and 
concaves will in some types of separator serve to bring 
up concaves when cylinder is slowly turned by hand. 

There are from two to six rows of teeth in the con- 
cave, and usually the number of rows is adjustable or 
variable. Two rows will thresh oats, where six are re- 
quired for flax and timothy. Four rows are commonly 
used for wheat and barley. The arrangement of rows 
of teeth and blanks is important. When four rows are 
used, one is commonly placed well back, one front, blank 
in the middle. When straw is dry and brittle, cylinder 
can be given ''draw'' by placing blank in front. Always 
use as few teeth and leave thern as low as possible to 
thresh clean, since with more teeth than necessary set 
higher than required the straw will be cut up and a great 
deal of chopped straw will get into the sieves, all of which 
also requires additional power. Sometimes the teeth can 
be taken out of one row, so that one, three, or five rows 
may be used. For especially difficult grain like Turkey 
wheat, a concave with corrugated teeth may be used, ii^ 
sets of three rows each up to nine rows. The corrugated 
teeth are used for alfalfa in localities where much is 
raised. 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE, IQt 



THEi BEATER AND CHECK BOARD. 

After the cylinder has loosened the grain from the 
husk and straw, it must still be separated. Some thresh- 
ers have a grate under the cylinder and behind it. In 
any case the beater causes the heavy grain to work 
toward the bottom, and the check board keeps the grain 
from being carried to rear on top of the straw, where 
it would not have a chance to become separated. If the 
grain is very heavy or damp, there may be a tendency 
for the straw to stick to the cylinder and be carried 
around too far. In such a case the beater should be 
adjusted to give more space, and the check board raised 
to allow the straw to pass to the rear freely. 

STRAW RACK. 

The straw rack and conveyor carry the straw and 
grain to the rear with a vibratory movement, causing 
the grain to be shaken out. To do good work the straw 
rack must move with a sufficient number of vibrations 
per minute, say 230. A speed indicator on the cranio 
shaft will show the number of vibrations best. Great 
care must be taken with this part of the thresher, or a 
great deal of grain will be carried into the straw. The. 
less the straw is cut i?p, the better this portion of the 
machine works ; so the smallest practicable number of 
teeth in the concave should be used. 

The crank boxes and pitmans should be adjusted sg 
that there is no pounding. If the rear vibrating arms 
drop too low they get below the dead center and are 
liable to break, at any rate causing severe pounding and 
hard running. To prevent this, the crank boxes can be 
moved forward by putting leather between them and 
the posts, or should be otherwise adjusted. The trouble 
being due to the pitmans having worn shorty the pit- 
mans may be lengthened in some way by putting pieceii. 
of leather over the end or the like, or new pitmans ma> 
be introduced. 

THE FAN. 

The chief difficulty likely to arise with the fan is 
blowing over grain. Tq prevent this blinds are usually 



19^ YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

arranged, which may be adjusted while the machine is 
running so as to prevent the grain from being blown 
over. At the same time it is important to clean the 
grain, so the adjustment should not go to one extreme 
or the other. 

In windy weather the blinds should be closed more 
on one side than on the other. The speed of the fan 
m.ust be adjusted to the requirements of the locality. 

As much blast should be used as the grain will standi 
and heav>^ feeding requires more wind than light feed- 
ing, since the chaff checks the blast to a certain extent. 

Care should be taken that the wind board over the 
grain auger does not get bent, and it should be adjusted 
so that Ae strongest part of the blast will come about 
the middle of the sieve. 

SIEVES. 

There is usually one conveyor sieve, which causes the 
grain to move along, and shoe sieves, which are required 
to clean the grain thoroughly. Different kinds of sieves 
are provided for different kinds of grain, and the proper 
selection and adjustment of these sieves as to mesh, etc., 
is of the utmost importance. 

Much depends on the way the sieves are set, and on 
the rate at which the thresher is fed, or the amount of 
work it is really doing. The best guide is close observa- 
tion and experience, both your ow^n and that of other 
threshermen. 

CONVEYOR EXTENSION. 

This carries the coarse chaff from the conveyor sieve 
to the stacker. The conveyor sieve should be coarse 
enough to let all the good grain through, as whatever 
is carried on to the extension must be returned with the 
tailings to the cylinder. This means so much waste 
work. The conveyor extension is removable, and should 
alwavs be tight before machine is started. See that it is. 

When necessary, the grain may be run over a screen, 
which differs from a sieve in that the mesh is small and 
intended to let dust and small chaff through while the 
grain does not pass. The refuse from the screen is 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. 193 

dropped onto the ground. All screens have a tendency 
to become clogged^ and in this condition obstruct the 
grain and wind. It is desirable not to use them except 
when necessary, and if used they should be frequently 
cleaned. 

TAILINGS ELEVATOR. 

The tailings are carried back to the cylinder by an 
elevator usually worked with a chain. This chain should 
be kept tight enough not to unhook, yet not so tight as 
to bind. 

To put the chain into the elevator, tie a weight on a 
rope and drop it down the lower part of the elevator. 
The chain may be fastened to the rope and a man at 
the top can then pull the chain up, while another feeds 
it in at the bottom. When chain has been drawn up to 
the top, the rope should be dropped down upper portion 
of elevator and used at bottom to pull chain down after 
it has been adjusted over the sprocket. Some one at the 
bottom should continue to feed the chain in as it is 
pulled down, so that it will go into the elevator straight. 
When the chain has been pulled through it may be 
hooked and adjusted to lower sprocket, and tightened 
up by screws at top. Turn the chain around once by 
hand to make sure there are no kinks in it. 

The tailings should be small, containing no light chaff 
and little full-size grain. They are a good indication of 
how the sieves are working. If much good grain is 
coming through, see if it gets over the conveyor sieve 
by way of the extension to the tailings auger, or over 
the shoe sieve. If the sieves are not right, they may be 
adjusted in various ways, according to the directions of 
the manufacturer. 

Grain returned in the tailings is liable to get cracked 
in the cylinder, and much chaff in the tailings chokes 
the cylinder. For every reason, the tailings should be 
kept as low as possible. 

SELF-FEEDER. 

The self-feeder is arranged to cut the bands of the 
sheaves and feed the grain to the cylinder automatically. 



194 YOUNG ENGINEERS* GUIDE. 

It has a governor to prevent crowding in too much 
grain^ and usually a change of pulleys for slow or fast 
feeding, as circumstances may require. In starting a 
new governor the friction pulley and inside of the band 
should have paint scraped off, and a little oil should be 
put on face of friction wheel. The carrier should not 
start till the machine attains full threshing motion, and 
to prevent this a few sheaves should be laid upon it. The 
knife arms should be raised or lowered to adjust them to 
the size of the sheaves and condition of the grain for 
cutting bands. 

The cranks and carrier shaft boxes should be oiled 
regularly, but the friction bands should not be oiled after 
it once becomes smooth. 

THE WIND STACKER. 

The wind stacker is arranged to swing by a hand- 
wheel or the like, and also automatically. 

Great care should be taken not to use the hand moving 
apparatus when the stacker is set for automatic moving, 
as a break is liable to follow. There is a clutch to stop 
the stacker, however. At times it will be more con- 
venient to leave off the belt that causes the automatic 
movement. 

By the use of various pulleys the speed of the stacker 
may be altered, and it should be run no faster than is 
necessary to do the work required, which will depend on 
the character of the straw. Any extra speed used will 
add to the cost of running the engine and is a loss in 
economy. 

In moving machine with wind stacker in place, care 
should be taken to see that it rests in its support before 
machine moves. 

The canvas curtain under the decking, used to turn 
the straw into the hopper, may need a piece of woo^I 
fastened to its lower edge to keep it more stiff when stiff 
rye straw is passing. The bearings of the fan and jack 
shafts should be kept well lubricated with hard oil, and 
the bevel gears should be kept well greased with axle 
grease applied with a stick. Other bearings and worm 
gear of automatic device should be oiled with soft oil. 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. ^05 

The attached stacker is simple in operation, and if u 
is desired not to use the automatic swinging device but 
swing by hand, the automatic gear may be throw^n out. 
An independent stacker is managed in much the same 
way. 

ATTACHMENTS. 

A weigher, bagger, and a high loader are usually used 
with a separator. Their operation is simple, and depends 
upon the particular type or make. 

BELTING. 

The care of the belting is one of the most important 
things about the management of a threshing machine, 
and success or failure will depend largely on the condi- 
tion in which the belts are kept. Of course the hair 
side should be run next the band wheel. Once there was 
disagreement among engineers on this pointy but it has 
been conclusively proven that belts wear longer this way 
and get better friction, for the simple reason that the 
flesh side is more flexible than the hair side, and when on 
the outside better accommodates itself to the shape of 
the pulley. If the hair side is outermost, it will be 
stretched more or less in going around the pulley and in 
time will crack. Rubber belts must be run with the seam 
on the outside. 

When leather belts become hard they should be sof- 
tened with neatsfoot oil. A flexible belt is said to trans- 
mit considerably more power than a hard one. 

Pulleys must be kept in line or the belt will slip off. 
When pulleys are in line the belt has a tendency to work 
to the tightest point. Hence pulleys are usually made 
larger in the middle, which is called ''crowning.'' 

Belts on a separator should be looked over every day, 
and when any lacing is worn, it should be renewed at 
once. This will prevent breaks during working, with 
loss of time. Some threshermen carry an extra set of 
belts to be ready in case anything does break, and they 
assert that they save money by so doing. 

Lacing is not stronger in proportion as it is heavy. If 
it is heavy and clumsy it gets strained in going round 



196 VOtJNG engineers' GUIDE. 

the pulley, and soon gives out. The ideal wa}^ to lace 
a belt is to make it as nearly like the rest of the belt as 
possible, so that it will go over the pulleys v^dthout a 
jar. The ends of the belt should be cut off square with 
a try square, and a small punch used for making holes. 
Holes should be equally spaced, and outside ones not so 
near the edge as to tear out. The rule is a hole to every 
inch of the belt, and in a leather belt they may be as 
close as a quarter of an inch to the ends without tearing 
out. Other things being equal, the nearer the ends the 
holes are the better, as belt will then pass over pulley 
more easily. The chief danger of tearing is between 
the holes. 

A stacker web belt' may be laced by turning the ends 
up and lacing them together flat at right angles to rest 
of belt. Rubber or cotton belting that does not run over 
idler or tightener pulleys so that both sides must be 
smooth may be laced in this way. This lacing lasts two 
or three times as long with such belts as any other, for 
the reason that the string is not exposed to wear and 
there is no straining in passing round pulleys. 

The ordinary method of lacing a leather belt is to 
make the laces straight on the pulley side, all running 
in the same direction as the movement of the belt, and 
crossing them on the outside diagonally in both direc- 
tions. When belts run on pulleys on both sides, as they 
do on the belt driving beater and crank, and also^ on 
wind stacker, a hinge lacing may be made by crossing 
the lacing around the end of the belt to the next adjacent 
hole opposite, the lacing showing the same on both 
sides. This allows the belt to bend equally well either 
way. 

Tlie best way to fasten a lacing is tO' punch a hole 
w^here the next row of lace holes would come when the 
belt is cut off, and after passing the lace through this 
hole, bring the end around and force it through again 
cutting the end off short after it has passed through. 
This hole must be small enough to hold the lace securely, 
and care should be taken that it is in position to be used 
as a lace-hole the next time a series of holes is required. 

New belts stretch a good deal, and the ends of the 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING AIACHINE. 197* 

lacing should not be cut off short till the stretch is taken 
out of the belts. 

Belting that has got wet will shrink and lacing must 
be let out before belt is put on again. Tight belts have 
been known to break the end of a shaft off, and always 
cause unnecessary friction. 

Cotton or Gandy belting should not be punched for 
lacing, but holes made with a pointed awl^ since punching 
cuts some of the threads and weakens belt. 

HOW TO BECOME A GOOD FEEDER. 

The art of becoming a good feeder will not be learned 
in a day. The bundles should be tipped well up against 
the cylinder cap, and flat bundles turned on edge, so that 
cylinder will take them from the top. It is not hard to 
spread a bundle, and in fast thresh'ing a bundle may be 
fed on each side, each bundle being kept pretty well to 
its own side, while the cylinder is kept full the entire 
width. A good feeder will keep the straw carrier evenly 
covered with straw, and will watch the stacker, tailings 
and grain elevator and know the moment anything goes 
wrong. 

WASTE. 

No threshing machine will save every kernel of the 
grain, but the best results can be attained only by care 
and judgment in operating. 

It is easy to exaggerate the loss cf grain, for if a 
very small stream of grain is seen going into the straw 
it will seem enormous, though it will not amount to a 
bushel a day. There are practically a million kernels of 
wheat in a bushel, or 600 handfuls^ and even if a handful 
is wasted every minute, it would not be enough to coun- 
terbalance the saving in finishing a job quickly. 

Of cO'urse, waste must be .watched, however, and 
checked if too great. First determine whether the grain 
is carried over in the straw or the waste is at the shoe 
sieve. 

If the waste is in the conveyor sieve, catch a handful 
of the chaff, and if grain is found, see whether the sieve 
is the proper mesh. Too high a speed will cause the 



198 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

grain to be carried over. If too many teeth are used in 
the concave, the conveyor sieve will be forced to carry 
more chaff than it can handle. The blast may be too 
strong and carry over grain, so adjust the blinds that 
the blast will be no stronger than is necessary to clean 
the wheat well and keep sieves free. If grain is still car- 
ried over, the conveyor sieve may be adjusted for more 
open work, but care should be taken not to overwork the 
shoe sieve. Be careful that the wind board is not bent 
so that some grain will go into the fan and be thrown 
out of the machine altogether. 

If the grain is not separated from the straw thor- 
oughly, it may be due to ''slugging'' the cylinder (result of 
poor feeding), causing a variable motion. It may also 
be because speed of crank is not high enough. Check 
board should be adjusted as low as possible to prevent 
grain being carried on top of straw. See that cylinder 
and concave teeth are properly adjusted so as not to 
cut up straw, while at the same time threshing out all 
the grain. Sometimes heads not threshed out by the 
cylinder will be threshed out by the fan of the wind 
stacker, and the fault will be placed on the separating 
portions instead of on the imperfect cylinder. 

Grain passes through the cylinder at the rate of about 
a mile a minute. The beater reduces this to 1,500 feet 
per minute. After passing the check board the straw 
moves about 36 feet per minute. At these three different 
speeds the straw passes the 17 feet length of the machine 
in about 25 seconds. The problem is to stop the grain 
while the straw is allowed to pass out. Evidently there 
must be a small percentage of loss, and there is always 
a limit as to what it will pay to try to save. Each man 
must judge for himself. 

BALANCING A CYLINDER. 

A cylinder should be so balanced that it will come to 
rest at any point. In a rough way a cylinder may be 
balanced by placing- the journals on two carpenter's 
squares laid on saw-horses. Gently roll the cylinder 
back and forth and every time it stops, make a chalk 
mark on the uppermost bar. If the same bar comes up 



HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. ^99 

three times in succession it probably is light, and a wedge 
should be driven under center band at chalk mark. 
Continue experimenting until cylinder will come to rest 
at any point. 

COVERING PULLEYS. 

This is easily done, but care must be taken that the 
leathers are tight or they will soon come off. 

To cover a cylinder pulley, take off what remains of 
the old cover, pull out the nails, and renew the wedges 
if necessary. Select a good piece of leather a little wader 
than face of pulley and about four inches longer than 
enough to go around. Soak it in water for about an 
hour. Cut one end square and nail it to the wedges, 
using nails just long enough to clinch. Put a clamp 
made of two pieces of wood and two bolts on the leather, 
block the cylinder to keep it from turning, and by means 
of two short levers pry over the clamp to stretch the 
leather. Nail to the next wedges, move the clamp and 
nail to each in turn, finally nailing to the first one again 
before cutting off. Trim the edges even with the rim 
of the pulley. 

The same method may be used with riveted covers. 

CARE OF A SEPAR.\TOR. 

A good separator ought to last ten years^ and many 
have been in use twice that time. After the season is 
over the machine ought to be thoroughly cleaned and 
stored in a dry place. Dirt on a machine holds moisture 
and will ruin a separator during a winter if it is left on. 
It also causes the wood to rot and sieves and iron work 
to rust. 

Once in two years at least a separator ought to have 
a good coat of first-class coach varnish. Before varnish- 
ing, clean off all grease and oil with benzine and see that 
paint is bright. 

At the beginning of the season give the machine a 
thorough overhauling, putting new teeth in cylinder if 
any are imperfect, and new slats in stacker web or straw 
rack if they are needed. Worn boxes should be taken 
up or rebabbitted, and conveyor and shoe eccentrics re- 



200 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE, 

placed if worn out. Tighten nuts, replace lost bolts, 
leaving the nut always turned square with the piece it 
rests on. Every separator ought to be covered with a 
canvas during the season. It will pay. 

The right and left sides of a threshing machine are 
reckoned from the position, of the feeder as he stands 
facing the machine. 

In case of fire, the quickest way is to let the engine 
pull the machine out by the belt. Take blocks away 
from wheels, place a man at end of tongue to steer, and 
back engine slowly. If necessary, men should help the 
wheels to start out of holes or soft places. 

Watch the forks of the pitchers to see that none are 
loose on the handles, especially if a self-feeder is used. 
A pitchfork in a separator is a bad thing. 



CHAPTER XV. 

QUESTIONS ASKED ENGINEERS WHEN APPLYING FOR A 

LICENSE/-^ 

Q. If you were called on to take charge of a plan; 
what would be your first duty? 

x\. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler ancJ 
all its attachments (safety valve, steam gauge, pump, in- 
jector), and engine. 

Q. How often would you blow off and clean your 
boilers if you had ordinary water to use? 

A. Once a month. 

Q. What steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler 
50 inches diameter 3/g inch thick, 60,000 T. S. 1-6 of 
tensile strength factor of safety? 

A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied 
by thickness of plate, divided by one-half of the diameter 
of boiler, gives safe v/orking pressure. 

Q. How much heating surface is allowed per horse 
power by builders of boilers ? 

A. Twelve to fifteen feet for tubular and flue boilers. 

Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? 

A. By its diameter and thickness of metal. 

Q. Which is the better, single or double riveting? 

A. Double riveting is from sixteen to twenty per cent 
stronger than single. 

O. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow 
per horse power? 

A. About two-thirds of a square foot. 

Q. Of what use is a mud drum on a boiler, if any? 

A.' For collecting all the sediment of the boiler. 

Q. How often should it be blown out? 

A. Three or four times a day. 

^Furnished by courtesy of a friend of Aultman & Taylor Co. 

201 



202 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

Q. Of what use is a steam dome on a boiler? 

A. For storage of dry steam. 

Q. What is the object of a safety valve on a boiler? 

A. To relieve pressure. 

Q. What is your duty with reference to it? 

A. To raise it twuce a day and see that it is in good 
order. 

Q. What is the use of check valve on a boiler? 

A. To prevent water from returning back into pump 
or injector whxch leeds the boiler. 

Q. Do you think a man-hole in the shell on top of a 
boiler weakens it any? 

A. Yes, to a certain extent. 

Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler plates? 

A. It will fracture them. 

Q. Where should the gauge cock be located? 

A. The lowest gauge cock ought to be placed about 
an inch and a half above the top row of flues. 

Q. How would you have your blow-off located? 

A. In the bottom of mud-drum or boiler. 

Q. How would you have your check valve arranged? 

A. With a stop cock between check and boiler. 

Q. How many valves are there in a common plunger 
' force pump ? 

A. Two or more — a receiving and a discharge valve. 

Q. How are they located? 

A. One on the suction side, the other on the dis- 
charge. 

Q. How^ do you find the proper size of safety valves 
for boilers ? 

A. Three square feet of grate surface is allowed for 
one inch area of spring loaded valves ; or tw^o square 
feet of grate surface to one i^ch area of common lever 
valves. 

Q. Give the reasons why pumps do not work some- 
times ? 

A. Leak in suction, leak around the plunger, leakv 
check valve, or valves out of order, or lift too long. 

Q. How often ought boilers to be thoroughly exam- 
ined and tested? 



question: applying to license. 203 

A. Twice a year. 

Q. How would you test them? 

A. With hammer and with hydrostatic test, using 
warm water. 

O. Describe the single acting plunger pump ; how it 
2ftts and discharges its water? 

A. The plunger displaces the air in the water pipe, 
causing a vacuum which is filled by the atmosphere forc- 
ing the water therein ; the receiving valve closes and the 
plunger forces the water out through the discharge 
valve. 

Q. What is the most economical boiler-feeder? 

A. The (Trix) Exhaust Injector.* 

Q. What economy is there in the Exhaust Injector? 

A. From 15 to 25 per cent sav.rrg- in fuel. 

Q. Where is the best place to enter the boiler with 
the feed water? 

A. Below the water level, but so that the cold water 
can not strike hot plates. If injector is used this is not 
so material as feed v\^ater is always hot. 

O. What are the principal causes of priming in boil- 
ers? 

A. To high water, not steam room enough, miscon- 
struction, engine too large for boiler. 

Q. How do you keep boilers clean or remove scale 
therefrom ? 

A. The best ''scale solvent" and ''feed water purifier" 
is an honest, intelligent engineer wW) will regularly open 
UD his boilers and clean them th^^^^iehly, soaking boilers 
in rain water now^ and then. 

0. If you found a thin plate, what w^ould you do? 

A. Put a patch on it. 

O. Would you put it on the inside or outside? 

A. Inside. 

Q Why so? 

A. Because the action that has weakened the plate 
will then set on the patch, and when this is worn it can be 
repeated. 

*5o says oti'^ expert. Others may think otherwise. 



204 YOUNG EXGIXEERS' GUIDE. 

O. If you found several thin places, what would you 
do? 

A. Patch each and reduce the pressure, 

O. If you found a blistered plate? 

A. Put a patch on the fire side. 

O. If you found a plate on the bottom buckled? 

A. Put a stay through the center of buckle. 

O. If you found several of the plates buckled? 

A. Stay each and reduce the pressure. 

Q. AMiat is to be done with a cracked plate? 

A. Drill a hole at each end of crack, caulk the crack 
and put a patch over it. 

Q. How do you change the water in the boiler when 
the steam is up? 

A. By putting on more feed and opening the surface 
blow cock. 

O. If the safety valve was stuck how would you re- 
lieve the pressure on the boiler if the steam was up and 
could not make its escape? 

A. Work the steam off with engine after covering fires 
heavy with coal or ashes, and when the boiler is suffi- 
ciently cool put safety valve in working order. 

Q. If water in boiler is suffered to get too low, what 
may be the result? 

A. Burn top of combustion chamber and tubes, per- 
haps cause an explosion. 

O. If water is allowed to get too high, what result? 

A. Cause priming, perhaps cause breaking of cylin- 
der covers or heads. 

O. What are the principal causes of foaming in boil- 
ers? 

A. Dirty and impure water. 

O. How can foaming be stopped? 

A. Close throttle and keep closed long enough to 
shoAv true level of water. If that level is sufficiently high, 
feeding and blowing oft' will usually suffice to correct 
the evil. 

O. \\liat would you do if you should find your water 
gone from sight very suddenb'^ 

A. Draw the fires and cool oft as quickly as possible 



gUESTlONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. ^'^'' 

Never open or close any outlets of steam when your wa- 
ter is out of sight. 

Q. What precautions should you take to blow down 
a part of the water in your boiler while running with a 
good fire? 

A. Never leave the blow-off valve, and watch the 
water level. 

Q. How much water would you blow off at once while 
running ? 

A. Never blow off more than one gauge of water at 
a time while running. 

Q. What general views have you in regard to boiler 
explosions — what is the greatest cause? 

A. Ignorance and neglect are the greatest causes of 
boiler explosions. 

Q. What precaution should t!^ engineer take when 
necessary to stop with heavy fires ? 

A. Close dampers, put on injector or pump and if a 
bleeder is attached, use it. 

Q. Where is the proper water level in boilers ? 

A. A safe water level is about two and a half inches 
over top row of flues. 

Q. What is an engineer's first duty on entering the 
boiler room? 

A. To ascertain the true water level. 

Q. When should a boiler be blown out ? 

A. After it is cooled off, never while hot. 

Q. When laying up a boiler what should be done? 

A. Clean thoroughly inside and out; remove all oxi- 
dation and paint places with re<' ^ad ; examine all stays 
and braces to see if any are loose or badly w^orn. 

Q. What is the last thing to do at night before leav- 
ing plant? 

A. Look around for greasy waste, hot coals, matches, 
or anything which could fire the building. 

Q. What would you do if you had a plant in good 
working order? 

A. Keep it so, and let well enough alone. 

Q. Of what use is the indicator? 

A. The indicator is used to determine the indicated 



2o6 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

power developed by an engine, to serve as a guide in 
setting valves and showing the action of the steam in 
the cylinder. 

Q. How would you increase the power of an engine ? 

A. To increase the power of an engine, increase the 
speed; or get higher pressure of steam, use less expan- 
sion. 

Q. How do you find the horsepower of an engine ? 

A. Multiply the speed of piston in feet per minute 
by the total effective pressure upon the piston in pounds 
and divide the product by 33,000. 

Q. Which has the most friction, a perfectly fitted, or 
an imperfectly fitted valve or bearing? 

A. An imperfect one. 

Q. How hot can you get water under atmospheric 
pressure with exhaust steam? 

A. 12 degrees. 

O. Does pressure have any influence on the boiling 
point ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Which do you think is the best economy, to run 
with your throttle wide open or partly shut? 

A. Always have the throttle wide open on a governor 
engine. 

Q. At what temperature has iron the greatest tensile 
strength ? 

A. About 600 degrees. 

Q. In what position on the shaft does the eccentric 
stand in relation to the crank? 

A. The throw of the eccentric should always be in 
advance of the crank pin. 

O. About how many pounds of water are required to 
yield one horsepower with our best engines ? 

A. From 25 to 30. 

Q. What is meant by atmospheric pressure? 

A. The weight of the atmosphere. 

Q. What is the weight of atmosphere at sea level? 

A. 14.7 pounds. 

Q. What is the coal consumption per hour per indi- 
cated horsepower? 



QUESTIONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. 207 

A. Varies from one and a half to seven pounds. 

Q. What is the consumption of coal per hour on a 
square foot of grate surface? 

A. From lo to 12 pounds. 

Q. What is the water consumption in pounds per 
hour per indicated horsepower? 

A. From 25 to 60 pounds. 

Q. How many pounds of water can be evaporated.' 
with one pound of best soft coal? 

A. From 7 to 10 pounds. 

Q. How much steam will one cubic inch of water 
evaporate under atmospheric pressure? 

A. One cubic foot of steam (approximately). 

Q. What is the weight of a cubic foot of fresh v/ater? 

A. Sixty-two and a half pounds. 

O. What is the weight of a cubic foot of iron? 

A. 486.6 pounds. 

Q. What is the weight of a square foot of one-half 
inch boiler plate? 

A. 20 pounds. 

Q. How much wood equals one ton of soft coal for 
steam purposes? 

A. About 4,000 pounds of wood. 

Q. How long have you run engines? 

Q. Have you ever done your own firing? 

Q. What is the source of all power in the steam en- 
gine ? 

A. The heat stored up in the coal. 

Q. How is the heat liberated from the coal ? 

A. By burning it ; that is, by combustion. 

Q. Of what does coal consist? 

A. Carbon^ hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and 
ash. 

Q. What are the relative proportions of these that 
enter into coal? 

A. There are different proportions in different speci- 
mens of coal, but the following shows the average per 
cent: Carbon. 80; hydrogen, k: nitrog-en. i; sulphur. 2' 
oxygen, 7; asn, ^ 



2oS YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

O. What must be mixed with coal before it will 
burn? 

A. Atmospheric air. 

Q. What is air composed of? 

A. It is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the pro- 
portion of yy of nitrogen to 23 of oxygen. 

Q. What parts of the air mix with what parts of the 
coal ? 

A. The oxygen of the air mixes with the carbon and 
hydrogen of the coal. 

Q. How much air must mix with the coal? 

A. 150 cubic feet of air for every pound of coal. 

Q. How many pounds of air are required to burn one 
pound of carbon? 

A. Twelve. 

Q. How many pounds of air are required to burn one 
pound of hydrogen? 

A. Thirty-six. 

Q. Is hydrogen hotter than carbon? 

A. Yes, four and one-half times hotter. 

Q. What part of the coal gives out the most heat? 

A. The hydrogen does part for part, but as there is 
so much more of carbon than hydrogen in the coal we 
get the greatest amount of heat from carbon. 

Q. In how many different ways is heat transmitted? 

A. Three; by radiation, by conduction and by con- 
vection. 

Q. If the fire consisted of glowing fuel, show how 
the heat enters the water and forms steam? 

A. The heat from the glowing fuel passes by radia- 
tion through the air space above the fuel to the furnace 
crown. There it passes through the iron of the crown 
by conduction. There it warms the water resting on the 
crown, which then rises and parts with its heat to the 
colder water by conduction till the whole mass of water 
is heated. Then the heated water rises to the surface an^^ 
parts with its steam, so a constant circulation of water i.-^ 
maintained by convection. 

O. What does water consist of? 

A. Oxygen and hydrogen. 



QUESTIONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. 2O9 

Q. In what proportion? 

A. Eight of oxygen tO) one of hydrogen by weight. 

Q. What are the different kinds of heat? 

A. Latent heat, sensible heat and sometimes total 
heat. 

Q. What is meant by latent heat? 

A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer and 
which expands itself in changing the nature of a body,, 
such as turning ice into water or water into steam. 

Q. Under what circumstances do bodies get latent 
heat ? 

A. When they are passing from^ a solid state to a 
liquid or from a liquid to a gaseous state. 

Q. How can latent heat be recovered? 

A. By bringing the body back from a state of gas 
to a liquid or from that of a liquid to that of a solid. 

Q. What is meant by a thermal unit? 

A. The heat necessary to raise one pound of water 
at 39 degrees Fn. i degree Fahrenheit. 

Q. If the power is in coal, why should we use steam ? 

A. Because steam has some properties which make it 
an invaluable agent for applying the energy of the heat 
to the engine. 

Q. What is steam? 

A. It is an invisible elastic gas generated from water 
by the application of heat. 

Q. What are its properties which make it so valuable 
to us? 

' A. I. — The ease with which we can condense it. 
2. — Its great expansive power. 3. — The small space it 
occupies when condensed. 

O. Why do you condense the steam? 

A. To form a vacuum, and so destroy the back pres- 
sure that would otherwise be on the piston and thus get 
more useful work out of the steam. 

Q. What is vacuum? 

A. A space void of all pressure. 

Q. How do you maintain a vacuum ? 

A. By the steam used being constantly condensed 
by the cold water or cold tubes, and the air pump as 
constantly clearing the condenser out. 



-10 YOUXG EXGIXEERS* oUlDK. 

O. \\'hy does coudensing the used steam form a 
vacuum? ^'^ "- 

A. Because a cubic foot of steam, at atmospheric 
pressure, shrinks into about a cubic inch of water. 

O. AMiat do you understand by the term horse 
power ? 

A. A horse power is equivalent to raising 33,000 
pounds one foot per minute, or 550 pounds raised one 
foot per second. 

O. How do you calculate the horse power of tubu- 
lar or flue boilers ? 

A. For tubular boilers, multiply the square of the 
diameter by length, and divide by four. For flue boil- 
ers, multiply the diameter by the length and divide by 
four; or, multiplv area of grate surface in square feet 
by i>4. ' 

O. What do you understand by lead on an engine's 
valve ? 

A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into 
the cylinder before the piston completes its stroke. 

0. What is the clearance of an engine as the term is 
applied at the present time? 

A. Clearance is the space between the cylinder head 
and the piston head with the ports included. 

O. \Vhat are considered the greatest improvements 
on the stationary engine in the last forty years? 

A. The governor, the Corliss valve gear and the 
triple compound expansion. 

Q. What is meant by triple expansion engine? 

A. A triple expansion engine has three cylinders 
using the steam expansively in each one. 

O. What is a condenser as applied to an engine? 

A. The condenser is a part of the low pressure engine 
and is a receptacle into which the exhaust enters and is 
there condensed. ^'^'^ ^'^'^^ ''^ 

O. \Miat are the principles wTiich distinguish a high 
pressure from a low pressure engine^ 
, A. Where no condenser is used and the exhaust 
steam is open to the atmosphere. 

O. About how much gain is there by using the con- 
denser? 



QUESTIONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. ^U 

A. 17 to 25 per cent where cost of water is not fig- 
ured. 

Q. What do you understand by the use of steam ex- 
pansively ? 

A. Wliere steam admitted at a certain pressure is 
cut off and allowed to expand to a lower pressure. 

Q. How many inches of vacuum give the best re- 
sults in a condensing engine? 

A. Usually considered 25. 

Q. What is meant by a horizontal tandem engine ? 

A. One cylinder being behind the other with two 
pistons on same rod. 

Q. What is a Corliss valve gear? 

A. {Describe the half moon or crab claw gear, or 
oval arm gear zvith dash pots.) 

Q. From what cause do belts have the power to 
drive shafting? 

A. By friction or cohesion. 

Q. What do you understand by lap? 

A. Outside lap is that portion of valve which ex- 
tends beyond the ports when valve is placed on the 
center of travel, and inside lap is that portion of valve 
which projects over the ports on the inside or towards 
the middle of valve. 

Q. What is the use of lap? 

A. To give the engine compression. 

Q. Where is the dead center of an engine? 

A. The point where the crank and the piston rod 
are in the same right line. 

Q. What is the tensile strength of American boiler 
iron ? 

A. 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch. 

Q. What is very high tensile strength in boiler iron 
apt to go with? 

A. Lack of homogeneousness and lack of toughness. 

Q. What is the advantage of toughness in boiler 
plate ? 

A. It stands irregular strains and sudden shocks bet- 
ter. 

Q. What are the principal defects found in boiler 



iron r 



? 



^I^ YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE. 

A. Imperfect welding^ brittleness, low ductility. 

Q. What are the advantages of steel as a material 
for boiler plates? 

A. Homogeneity, tensile strength, malleability, duc- 
tility and freedom from laminations and blisters. 

Q. What are the disadvantages of steel as a material 
for boiler plates? 

A. It requires greater skill in working than iron, 
and has, as bad qualities, brittleness, low ductility and 
flaws induced by the pressure of gas bubbles in the ingot. 

Q. When would you oil an engine? 

A. Before starting it and as often while running as 
necessary. 

Q. How do you find proper size of any stay bolts 
for a well made boiler? 

A. First, multiply the given steam pressure per 
square inch by the square of the distance between cen- 
ters of stay bolts, and divide the product by 6,000, and 
call the answer ''the quotient." Second, divide ''the quo- 
tient" by .7854, and extract the square root of the last 
quotient ; the answer will give the required diameter of 
stay bolts at the bottom of thread. 

0. In what position would 3^ou place an engine, to 
take up any slack motion of the reciprocating parts? 

A. Place engine in the position where the least wear 
takes place on the journals. That is, in taking up the 
wear of the crank-pin brasses, place the engine on either 
dead center, as, when running, there is but little wear 
upon the crank-pin at these points. If taking up the 
cross-head pin brasses — without disconnecting and swing- 
ing the rod — place the engine at half stroke, which is the 
extreme point of swing of the rod, there being the least 
wear on the brasses and cross-head pin in this position. 

Q. What benefits are derived by using flywheels on 
steam engines? 

A. The energy developed in the cylinder while the 
steam is doing its work is stored up in the flywheel, and 
given out by it while there is no work being done in the 
cylinder — that is, when the engine is passing the dead 



fe 



OUESTIUXS ArrLYIXG TO LICENSE. -^o 

centers. This tends to keep the speed of the engine shaft 
steady. 

O. Xame several kinds of reducing motions, as used 
in indicator practice? 

A. The pantograph, the pendulum, the brumbo pul- 
ley, the reducing wheel. 

O. How can an engineer tell from an indicator dia- 
gram whether the piston or valves are leaking? 

A. Leaky steam valves will cause the expansion cur\'e 
to become convex: that is. it will not follow hyperbolic 
expansion, and will also show increased back pressure. 
But if the exhaust valves leak also, one may offset the 
other, and the indicator diagram would shew no leak. 

A leaky piston can be detected by a rapid falling in 
the pressure on the expansion curve immediately after 
the point of cut-off. It vvdll also show increased back 
pressure. 

A falling in pressure in the upper portion of the com- 
pression curve shows a leak in the exhaust valve. 

O. AMiat would be the best method of treating a 
badly scaled boiler, that was to be cleaned by a liberal 
use of compound? 

A. First open the boiler up and note where the loose 
scale, if any. has lodged. Wash out thoroughly and put 
in the required amount of compound. While the boiler 
is in service, open the blow-oft* valve for a few seconds, 
two or three times a day, to be assured that it does not 
become stopped up with scale. 

After running the boiler for a week, shut it down, and, 
when the pressure is down and the boiler cooled off, 
run the water otit and take oft* the hand-hole plates. Xote 
what eft'ect the compotmd has had on the scale, and where 
the disengaged scale has lodged. Wash out thoroughly 
and use judgment as to whether it is advisable to use a 
less or greater quantity of compound, or to add a small 
qtiantity daily. 

Continue the v;ashing out at short intervals, as manv 
boilers have been burned by large quantities of scale 
dropping on the crown sheets and not being removed. 

Q. If a condenser was attached to a side-valve en- 



^^4 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

gine, that had been set to run non-condensing, what 
changes, if any, would be necessary? 

A. More lap would have to be added to the valve to 
cut off the steam at an earlier point of the stroke ; if not, 
the initial pressure into the cylinder would be throttled 
down and the economy, to be gained from running con- 
densing, lessened. 

Q. If you are carrying a vacuum equal to 2y^ inches 
of mercury, what should the temperature of the water 
in the hot well be? 

A. io8 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Q. Define specific gravity. 

A. The specific gravity of a substance is the number 
which expresses the relation between the weights of equal 
volume of that substance, and distilled water of 60 de- 
grees Fahrenheit. 

O. Find the specific gravity of a body whose volume 
is 12 cubic inches, and which floats in water with 7 cubic 
inches immersed. 

A. When a body floats in water, it displaces a quan- 
tity of water equal to the weight of the floating body. 
Thus, if a body of 12 cubic inches in volume floats with 
7 cubic inches immersed, 7 cubic inches of water must 
be equal in weight to 12 cubic inches of the substance 
and one cubic inch of water to twelve-sevenths cubic 
inches of the substance. 

As specific gravity equals weight of one volume of 
substance divided by weight of equal volume of water, 
then specific gravity of the substance in this case equals 
I divided by twelve-sevenths. 

USEFUL INFORMATION. 

To find circumference of a circle, multiply diameter 
by 3.1416. 

To find diameter of a circle, multiply circumference 
by .31831. 

To find area of a circle multiply square of diameter 
by .7854. 

To find area of a triangle, multiply base by one-half 
the perpendicular height. 



QUESTIONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. ^IJ 

To find surface of a ball, multiply square of diameter 
by 3.1416. .r jo r 

To find solidity of a sphere, multiply cube of diameter 
by .5236. 

To find side of an equal square, multiply diameter by 
8862. 

To find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube of diame- 
ter by .5236. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity 
fo-ur times. 

A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 81-3 
pounds and contains 231 cubic inches. :;;v 

A cubic foot of water contains 7-J gallons, 1728 cubic ^ 
inches, and weighs 62^ pounds. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a 
column of water multiply the height of the column in 
feet by .434. 

Steam, rising from water at its boiling point (212 de- 
grees) has a pressure equal to the atmosphere (14.7 
pounds to the square inch). 

A standard horse power: The evaporation of 30 lbs, 
of water per hour from a feed water temperature of 100 
degrees F. into steam at 70 lbs. gauge pressure. 

To find capacity of tanks any size ; given dimensions 
of a cylinder in inches, to find its capacity in U. S. gal- 
lons : Square the diameter, multiply by the length and 
by .0034. 

To ascertain heating surface in tubular boilers, mul- 
tiply two-thirds of the circumference of boiler by length 
of boiler in inches and add to it the area O'f all the tubes. 

One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by 
thickness of plate and divided by one-half the diameter 
of boiler gives safe working pressure for tubular boilers. 
For marine boilers add 20 per cent for drilled holes. 

Toi find the horsepower of an engine, the following 
four factors must be considered : Mean effective or av- 
erage pressure on the cylinder^ length of stroke, diame- 
ter of cylinder, and number of revolutions per minute. 
Find the area of the piston in square inches by multi- 
plying the diameter by 3.1416 and multiply the result 
by the steam pressure in pounds per square inch; mul- 



2l6 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

tiply this product by twice the product of the length of 
the stroke in feet and the number of revolutions per 
minute; divide the result by 33,000, and the result will 
be the horsepower of the engine. 

(Tlieoretically a horsepower is a power that will raise 
33,000 pounds one foot in one minute.) 

The power of fuel is measured theoretically from the 
following basis : If a pound weight fall 780 feet in a 
vacuum., it will generate heat enough to raise the tem- 
perature of one pound of water one degree. Conversely, 
power that will raise one pound of water one degree in 
temperature will raise a one pound weight 780 feet. 
The heat force required to turn a pound of water at 32 
degrees into steam would lift a ton weight 400 feet high, 
or develop two-fifths of one horsepower for an hour. 
The best farm engine practically uses 35 pounds of water 
per horsepower per hour, showing that one pound of 
water would develop only one-thirty-fifth of a horse- 
power in an hour, or 71-7 per cent of the heat force 
liberated. The rest of the heat force is lost in various 
w^ays, as explained in the body of this book. 

The following* will assist in determining the amount 
of power supplied to an engine : 

'Tor instance, a i inch belt of the standard grade with 
the proper tension, neither too tight or tooi loose^ run- 
ning at a maximum) speed of 800 feet a minute will 
transmit one horsepower, running 1,600 feet two horse- 
power and 2,400 feet three horsepower. A 2-inch belt 
at the same speed, twice the power. 

"Now if you know the circumference of your flywheel, 
the number of revolutions your engine is making and 
the width of belt, you can figure very nearly the amount 
of power you can supply without slipping your belt. For 
instance, we will say your flywheel is 40 inches in diam- 
eter or 10.5 feet nearly in circumference and your engine 
was running 225 revolutions a minute, your belt would 
be traveling 225x10.5 feet = 2362.5 feet, or very nearly 
2,400 feet, and if one inch of belt would transmit three 

'♦'J. H. Maggard in "Rough and Tumble Engineering." 



QUESTIONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. ^^7 

horsepower running this speed, a 6-inch belt would 
transmit eighteen horsepower, a 7-inch belt twenty-one 
Iiorsepower, an 8-inch belt twenty-four horsepower, 
and SO' on. With the above as a basis for figuring you 
can satisfy yourself as to the power you are furnishing. 
To get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly, as it 
hugs the pulley closer, and will last much longer.'' 

KEYING PULLEYS.* 

A key must be of equal width its whole length and 
accurately fit the seats on shaft and in pulley. The thick- 
ness should vary enough to make the taper correspond 
with that of the seat in the pulley. The keys should be 
driven in tight enough to be safe against w^orking loose. 
The hubs of most of the pulleys on the machine run 
against the boxes, and in keying these on, about 1-32 
of an inch end play to the shaft should be allowed, be- 
cause there is danger of the pulley rubbing so hard 
against the end of the box as to cause it to heat. 

A key that is too thin but otherwise fits all right can 
be made tight by putting a strip of tin between the key 
and the bottom of the seat in the pulley. 

Drazving Keys. If a part of the key stands outside of 
the hub, catch it with a pair of horseshoe pinchers and 
pry with them against the hub, at the same time hitting 
the hub with a hammer so as to drive pulley on. A key 
can sometimes be drawn by catching the end of it with 
a claw hammer and driving on the hub of pulley. If 
pulley is against box and key cut off flush with hub, take 
the shaft out and use a drift from the inside, or if seat 
is not long enough to make this possible, drive the pulley 
on until the key loosens. 

BABBITTING BOXES. "^ 

To babbitt any kind of a box, first chip out all of the 
old babbitt and clean the shaft and box thoroughly with 
benzine. This is necessary or gas will be formed from 
the grease when the hot metal is poured in and leave 
''blow holes." In babbitting a solid box cover the shaft 

*Courtesy J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., from "Science 
of Successful Threshing." 



2l8 YOUNG engineers' GUIDE. 

with paper, draw it smooth and tight, and fasten the 
lapped ends with rmucilage. If this is not done the shrink- 
age of the metal ir? cooling will make it fast on the shaft, 
so that it can't be moved. If this happened it would be 
necessary to put the shaft and box together in the fire 
and mielt the babbitt out or else break the box to get it 
ofif. Paper around the shaft will prevent this and if 
taken out when the babbitt has cooled the shaft will be 
found to be just tight enough to run well. 

Before pouring the box, block up the shaft until it is 
in line and in center of the box and put stiff putty around 
the shaft and against the ends of the box to keep the 
babbitt from running out. Be sure to leave air-holes at 
each end at the top, making a little funnel of putty 
around each. Also make a larger funnel around the 
pouring hole, or, if there is none, enlarge one of the air- 
holes at the end and pour in that. The metal should be 
heated until it is just hot enough to run freely and the 
fire should not be too far away. When ready to pour 
the box, don't hesitate or stop, but pour continuously 
and rapidly until the metal appears at the air holes. The 
oil hole may be stopped with a wooden plug and if this 
plug extends through far enough to touch the shaft, it 
will leave a hole through the babbitt so that it will not 
be necessary to drill one. 

A split box is babbitted in the same manner except 
that strips of cardboard or sheet-iron are placed between 
the two halves of the box and against the shaft to divide 
the babbitt. To let the babbitt run from the upper half 
to the lower, cut four or six V-shaped notches, a quarter 
of an inch deep, in the edges of the sheet-iron or card- 
board that come against the shaft. Cover the shaft with 
paper and put cardboard liners between the box to allow 
for adjustment as it wears. Bolt the cap on securely 
before pouring. When the babbitt has cooled, break the 
box apart by driving a cold chisel between the two halves. 
Trim off the sharp edges of the babbitt and with a round- 
nose chisel cut oil grooves from the oil hole towards the 
ends of the box and on the slack side of the box or the 
one opposite to the direction in v/hich the belt pulls. 



QUESTIONS APPLYING TO LICENSE. 2ig 

The ladle should hold six or eight pounds of metal. 
If much larger it is awkward to handle and if too small 
it will not keep the metal hot long enough to pour a good 
box. The cylinder boxes on the separator take from 
two to three pounds of metal each. If no putty is at 
hand, clay mixed to the proper consistency may be used. 
Use the best babbitt you can get for the cylinder boxes. 
If not sure of the quality, use ordinary zinc. It is not 
expensive and is generally satisfactory. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Lime may be taken out of an injector by soaking it 
over night in a mixture of one part of muriatic acid 
and ten parts soft water. If a larger proportion of acid 
is used it is likely to spoil the injector. 

A good, blacking for boilers and smokestacks is as- 
phaltum dissolved in turpentine. 

To polish brass, dissolve 5 cents' worth of oxalic acid 
in a pint of water and use to clean the brass. When 
tarnish has been removed, dry and polish with chalk 
or whiting. 

It is said that iron or steel will not rust if it is placed 
for a few minutes in a warm solution of washing soda. 

Grease on the bottom of a boiler will stick there and 
prevent the w^ater from conducting away the heat. When 
steel is thus covered with grease it will soon melt in a 
hot fire, causing a boiler to burst if the steel is poor, or 
warping it out of shape if the steel is good. 

Sulphate of lime in water, causing scale, may be coun- 
teracted and scale removed by using coal oil and sal 
soda. When water contains carbonate of lime, molasses 
will remove the scale. 

CODE OF WHISTLE SIGNALS. 

One short sound means to stop. 

Two short sounds means the engine is about to- begin 
work. 

Three medium short sounds mean that the machine 
will soon need grain and grain haulers should hur^v^ 

One rather long sound followed by three short ones 
means the w^ater is low and water hauler should hurry. 



220 



YOUNG ENGINEERS' GUIDE. 



A succession of short, quick whistles means distress 
or fire. 

WEIGHT PER BUSHEL OF GRAIN. 

The following- table gives the number of pounds per 
bushel required by law or custom in the sale of grain 
in the several states : 



m 



o 



^ 

60 
60 
56 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 



Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

District of Columbia 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Manitoba 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan . 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New York 

New Jersey 

New Hampshire . . . . 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

South Dakota 

South Carolina 

Vermont 

Virginia . . v 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 



60 



62 



60 



60 



60 



56 



60 



56 



50 
42 
50 
42 
42 
48 
52 
56 
48 
48 
60I52 
..I48 



56 



60 



45 



48 



56 



56 



34 



32 
32 
32 
32 

50I32 
.|34 

'\32 

• \30 
.I30 
.|30 
.I32 
•I32 
.I32 
.I36 
.I30 
50I32 
'33 
32 
32 
32 
32 



54152 
56I56 



56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56I56 
56I56 
56I56 
56I56 
56156 
56I56 
56I56 
56I58 
56I56 
56I56 
56I54 
56156 
50I56 
56(56 
56I56 
56I56 
56I56 
56IS6 
56|s6 
56I56 
56I56 
56I56 



45 



45 



CHAPTER XVI. 

DIFFERENT MAKES OF TRACTION ENGINES. 
J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINES. 

These engines are among the simplest and at the ^ame 
time most substantial and durable traction engines on the 
market. They are built of the best materials throughout, 
and are one of the easiest engmes for a novice to run. 

They are of the side crank type, with spring mounting. 
The engine is supported by a bracket bolted to the side 
of the boiler^ and a pillow block bearing at the firebox end 
bolted to the side plate of the boiler. 

The valve is the improved Woolf, a single simple, 
valve being used, worked by a single eccentric. The 
eccentric strap has an extended arm pivoted in a wooden 
block sliding in a guide. The direction of this guide can 
be so changed by the reverse lever as to vary the cut-ofif 
and easily reverse the engine when desired. 

The engine is built either with a simple cylinder or 
with a tandem compound cylinder. 

In the operation of the differential gear, the power is 
first transmitted to spur gear, containing cushion springs, 
from thence by the springs to a center ring and four bevel 
pinions which bear equally upon both bevel gears. The 
whole differential consequently wnll move together as but 
one wheel when engine is moving straight forward or 
backward; but when turning a corner the four pinions 
revolve in the bevel gears just in proportion to the sharp- 
ness of the curve. 

There is a friction clutch working on the inside of the 
flywheel by means of two friction shoes that can be bA~ 
justed as they wear. 

There is a feed water heater with three tubes in a 
watertight cylinder into which the exhaust steam is ad- 
mitted. The three tubes have smaller pipes inside so that 

221 



YOUNG EXGIXEERS' GUIDE, 



the feed water in passing through forms a thin cyhii- 
drical ring. 

The traction wheels are driven from the rims. The 
front w^heels have a square band on the center of the 




rim, to prevent sHpping sidewise. The smokestack is 
cast iron in one piece. 

The firebox will burn wood, coal or straw, a fire brick 
arch being used for straw, making this fuel give a uni- 
form heat. 



DIFFERENT TYrES OF ENGINES. ^^3 

The boiler is of the simple locomotive type, with water 
leg around the firebox and numerous fire flues connect- 
ing the firebox with the smokestack in front. There 
is safety plug in crown sheet and the usual fittings. The 
water tank is under the platform. The steering wheel 
and band wheel are on right side of engine. An inde- 
pendent Marsh pump and injector are used. The Marsh 
pump is arranged to heat the feed water when exhaust 
heater cannot be used. The governor is the Waters,, 
the safety valve the Kunkle. 



THE FRICK CO. S TRACTION ENGINE. 

The most noticeable feature of this engine is that it 
has a frame mounted on the traction wheels entirely 
independent of the boiler, thus relieving the boiler of 
all strain. This is 
an undeniable ad- 
vantage, since usu- 
ally the strain on 
the boiler is great 
e'nough with o u t 
forcing the boiler to 
carry the engine 
and gears. 

The gearing to 
the traction w^heels 
is simple and direct, 
and a patent elastic 
spring or cushion connection is used which avoids sud- 
den strain and possible breakage of gears. Steel trac- 
tion wheels and riveted spokes. Dififerential gear in 
main axle, with locking device when both traction 
wdieels are required to pull out of a hole. The reverse 
gear is single eccentric, the eccentric turning on 
the shaft. It is well adapted to using steam ex- 
pansively. The crown sheet is so arranged as not to be 
left bare of water in going up or down hills. Workino; 
parts are covered dust proof. Engine has self-oilins: 
features and sight feed lubricator. Friction clutch in 
flywheel. Safety brake on main axle. Engineer's plat- 




THE FKICK CO.^S TKACTION ENGINE. 



224 



YOlJNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



form mounted on springs and every part of engine re- 
quiring attenf.'on can be reached conveniently from plat- 
form. 

Crank is center type. Cross-head pump is used. Usual 
fittings. 




These engines are built with boiler of locomotive type 
for burning wood and coal, and of return flue type for 
burning straw. They are also built of three general 



DIFFERExNiT TYPES OF ENGINES. 22^ 

types, "Corliss-pattern" frame, ''Standard" and "'Cotu 
pound." 

The engine is side crank, mounted on brackets at- 
tached to the sides of the boiler. The bedplate, cylinder 
and guides are bored at one operation and cannot get 
out of alignment. Cylinder has wide ports and free 
exhaust, and piston has self-setting rings. The genuine 
link reverse gear is used, as on locomotives, and it un- 
doubtedly has many advantages over any other^ includ- 
ing an easily adjustable variable cut-off by correct setting 
of reverse lever. 

The dift'erential gear is heavy and effective. A patent 
steering attachment, with spiral roll, holds chains taut 
and gives positive motion. Friction clutch is mounted 
on engine shaft and connects with the hub of the pinion 
on this shaft. Rigid pinion is also provided. Cross-head 
pump and injector are used, and Pickering governor 
with improved spring speeder, permitting quSck and 
easy change of speed; also Sawyer's lever for testing 
safety. Steam passes direct from dome to cylinder, with- 
out loss from cooling or condensing. The steel water 
tank can be filled by a jet pump operated by steam. 

D. JUNE & CO.'S TRACTION ENGINE. 

This is one of the very few traction engines built wath 
upright boiler, but it has been on the market many years 
and has been widely used with great success as a general 
road locomotive. 

The engine is mounted on the w^ater tank. The weight 
of the boiler comes on the hind wheels, and makes this 
type of engine superior for pulling. It is claimed that 
it has no equal on the market as a puller. The upright 
type of boiler has the advantage that the crown sheet 
is never exposed and it is claimed flues will last long-er 
than in horizontal type. It works equally well whether 
it stands level or not, an advantage that no other type 
has. 

This type gets up steam more quickly than any other — 
it is said, from cold water, in twenty minutes. The steam 
is superheated in a way to economize fuel and water. 



226 



YOUXG EXGIXEERS' GUIDE. 



By being" inounted on the tank, the engine does not get 
hot as it \vould if mounted on the boiler, and tlie cor- 
responding straining of parts is avoided. A patent water 
spark arrester is used which is an absolute protection. 




The engine is geared to the traction by a chain, which 
can easily be repaired as the links wear. The friction 
clutch works inside flyvrheel. Engine has a new re- 
versible eccentric^ and differential gear, with usual fit- 
tings. 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 



22; 



NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE. 

The builders of this engine lay special stress upon the 
care with which the boiler and similar parts are con- 
structed. The important seams are double riveted, and 




the flue sheet is half inch steel, driiled instead of punchec 
for the flues, and fitted with seamless steel flues, all of the 
best steel. 

The boiler is the direct flue locomotive type. The crown 



228 



VOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



sheet Slopes backward to allow it to be covered with wa- 
ter in descending hills. Boiler has round-bottom firebox. 
Axle passes around below the boiler, and springs are pro- 
vided. 

The engine is mounted on a long heater, which is at- 
tached to the side of the boiler. The locomotive link re- 
verse is used, with a plain slide valve. 

Cross-head pump and injector are used, and improved 
pop safety valve. Cylinder is jacketed, and cross-head 
guides are rigid wath cylinder, so that perfect alignment 
is ahvays secured. 

Engines are built to burn coal or wood. A straw bur- 
ner is provided wnth firebrick arch. Compound engines 
are also built. 



THE HUBER TRACTION ENGINE. 

The Huber boiler is of the return flue type, and the 
gates are in the large central tube. This does away with 
the low^-hanging firebox, and enables the engine to cross 
streams and straddle stumps as the low^ firebox type can- 
not do. The cylindrical shape of the boiler also adds 
considerably to its strength. The water tank is carried in 

front, and swangs 
around so as to 
open the smoke box, 
so that repairs may 
be made on the fire 
tubes 
easily 
air. 
front 




at 



end 



THE HUBER TKACTION ENGINE. 



is no firebox, the boiler is 

not by bolting a plate to 

The boiler is made fast 

mounted on w^heels with spring cushion gear, the springs 

being placed in the w^heel itself, betw^een the two bearings 



this 
in the open 
AVith water 
return flue 
boilers the workman 
• has to crawd through 
entire length of cen- 
tral, flue. As there 
mounted above the axle. 
the side of the firebox, 
to the axle, w^hich 



IS 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 22(J 

of the wheel or the hub on trunnions, which form ine 
spindle for the hub. The wheel revolves on the trunnion 
instead of on the axle, and there is no wear on the axle. 
The traction gear has a spring connection so that in start- 
ing a load there is little danger of breakage. The com- 
pensating gear is all spur. The intermediate gear has a 
ten-inch bearing, with an eccentric in the center for ad- 
justing the gear above arid below. There is a spring 
draw bar and elastic steering device. An improved fric- 
tion clutch works on inside of flywheel. Engine has a 
speciid governor adapted to varying work over rough 
roads, etc. 

A single eccentric reverse gear is used, with arm and 
wood slide block (Woolf) ; and there is a variable ex- 
haust, by which a strong draft may be quickly created by 
shutting ofif one of two exhaust nozzles. When both 
exhausts are open, back pressure is almost entirely re- 
lieved. 

The steam is carried in a pipe down through the mid- 
dle of the central flue, so that superheating is secured, 
which it is claimed makes a saving of over 8 per cent in 
fuel and water. The stack is double walled with air space 
between the walls. 

A special straw-burning engine is constructed with a 
firebox extension in front, and straw passes over the 
end of a grate in such a w^ay as to get perfect combustion. 
This make of engine is peculiarly adapted to burning 
straw successfully. 

A. \\\ STEVENS' TRACTION ENGINE. 

This engine has locomotive pattern boiler, with sloping 
crown sheet, and especially high ofifset over firebox, dou- 
bling steam space that will give dry steam at all times. A 
large size steam pipe passes from dome in rear through 
boiler to engine in front, superheating steam and avoiding;- 
condensation from exposure. Grate is a rocking one, 
easily cleaned and requiring little attention, and firedoor 
is of a i3attern that remains air-tight and need seldom 1)1? 
opened. 



230 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



The engine is mounted upon the boiler, arranged for 
rear gear traction attachment. Engine frame, cylinder, 
guides, etc., are cast in one solid piece. 

It has a special patented single eccentric reverse, and 




Pickering horizontal governor. There is a friction clutch, 
Marsh steam pump, and injector. Other fittings are com- 
plete, and engine is well made throughout. 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 



231 



AULTMAN-TAYLOR TRACTION ENGIKS. 

The Aultman-Taylor Traction Engine is an exception- 
ally well made engine of the simplest type, and has been 
on the market over 25 years. There are two general 
types, the wood and coal burners with locomotive boilers, 
and return flue boiler style for burning straw. A com- 
pound engine is also made with the Woolf single valve 
gear. 

A special feature of this engine is that the rear axle 
comes behind the firebox instead of between the firebox 
and the front wheels. This distributes the weight of the 
engine more evenly. The makers do not believe in springs 
for the rear axle, 
since they have a 
tendency to wear 
the gear convex or 
round, and really 
accomplish much 
less than they are 
supposed to. 

Another special 
point is the bevel 
traction gear. The 
engine is mounted 
on the boiler well 
toward the front, 
and the flywheel is near the stack (in the locomotive 
type). By bevel gears and a long shaft the power is con- 
ducted to the dift'erential gear in connection with the rear 
wheels. The makers claim that lost motion can be taken 
up in a bevel gear much better than in a spur gear. Be- 
sides, the spur gear is noisy and not nearly so durable. 
Much less friction is claimed for this type of gear. 

The governor is the Pickering; cross-head pump is 
used, with U. S. injector, heater, and other fittings com- 
plete. A band friction clutch is used, said to be very dur- 
able. Diamond special spark arrester is used except in 
straw burners. The platform and front bolster are pro- 
vided with springs. The makers especially recommend 







AULTAIAX-TAYLOE TR ACTION EXGIXE. 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



their compound engine, claiming a gain of about 25 per 
cent. The use of automatic band cutters and feeders, auto- 
matic weighers and baggers, and pneumatic stackers with 
threshing machine outfits make additional demands on an 
engine that is best met by the compound type. With large 
outfits, making large demands, the compound engine gives 
the required power without undue weight. 

AVERY TRACTION ENGINE. 

The Avery is an engine with a return flue boiler and 
full water front, and also is arranged with a firebox be- 
sides. There is no doubt that it efifects the greatest econ- 
omy of fuel possible, and is adaptable equally for wood, 
coal, or straw. The boiler is so built that a man may 

readily crawl 
through the large 
central flue and get 
at the front ends of 
the return tubes to 
repair them. 

The side gear is 
used with a crank 
disc instead of arm. 
The reverse is the 
Grime, a single ec- 
centric with device 
for shifting for reverse. The friction clutch has unusu- 
ally long shoes, working inside the flywheel, with ample 
clearance when lever is ofif. A specialty is made of extra 
wide traction wheels for soft country. The traction gear 
is of the spur variety. There is also a double speed device 
offered as an extra. 

The water tank is carried in front, and lubricator, steer- 
ing wheel (on same side as band wheel for convenience 
in lining up with separator), reverse lever, friction 
clutch, etc., are all right at the hand of the engineer. 

The traction gear is of the spur variety, adjusted to be 
evenly disfributed to both traction wheels through the 
compensating gear, and to get the best possible pull in 
case of need. 




AVERY TRACTION ENGINE. 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 



'-35 



For pulling qualities and economy of fuel, this engine is 
especially recommended. 

BUFFALO PITTS TRACTION ENGINE. 

The Buffalo Pitts Engine is built either single cylinder 
or double cylinder. The boiler is of the direct flue loco- 
motive type, with full water bottom firebox. The straw 
burners are provided with a firebrick arch in the firebox. 
Boilers are fully jacketed. 



b 







^34 YOUNG engineers' guide. 

The single and double cylinder engines differ only in 
this one particular, the double cylinder having the advan- 
tage of never being on a dead center and starting with 
perfect smoothness and gently, seldom throwing off belt. 
The frame has bored guides, in same piece with cylinder, 
effecting perfect alignment. 

The compensating gear is of the bevel type, half 
shrouded and so close together that sand and grit are kept 
out. Three pinions are used, which it is claimed prevent 
rocking caused by two or four pinions. 

Cross-head has shoes unusually long and wide. The 
engine frame is of the box pattern, and is also used as a 
heater, feed water for either injector or steam pump pass- 
ing through it. Valve is of the plain locomotive slide 

type. 

The friction clutch has hinged arms working into fly- 
wheel with but slight beveling on flyw^ieel inner surface, 
and being susceptible of easy release. It is a specially 
patented device. Tlie Woolf single eccentric reverse gear 
is used. Engine is fully provided with all modern fittings 
and appliances in addition to those mentioned. It was 
the only traction engine exhibited at Pan-American Ex- 
position which won gold medal or highest award. It 
claims extra high grade of workmanship and durability. 

THE REEVES TRACTION ENGINES. 

These engines are made in two styles, simple double 
cylinder and cross compound. The double cylinder and 
cross compound style have been very successfully adapted 
to traction engine purposes with certain advantages that 
no other style of traction engine has. With two cylinders 
and two pistons placed side by side, with crank pins at 
right angles on the shaft, there can be no dead centers, at 
which an engine will be completely stuck. Then sudden 
starting is liable to throw off the main belt. With a dou- 
ble cylinder engine the starting is always gradual and 
easy, and never fails. 

The same is equally true of the cross compound, which 
has the advantage of using the steam expansi\^ely in the 
low pressure cylinder. In case of need the livt .vx<,n^ may 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 



be introduced into the low pressure cylinder, enormously 
increasing the pulling power of the engine for an emer- 
gency, though the capacity of the boiler does not permit 
long use of both cylinders in this way. 



^jtR 



1^ 

> 

o 

Q 




The engme is placed on top of the firebox portion of 
the boiler, and the weight is nicely balanced so that it 
comes on both sides alike. 



?36 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



The gearing is attached to the axle and countershaft 
which extend across the engine. The compensating gear 
is strong and well covered from dirt. The gearing is the 
gear type, axle turning with the drivers. There is an 
independent pump ; also injector, and all attachments. The 
band wheel being on the steering wheel or right side of 
the engine, makes it easy to line up to a threshing ma- 
chine. Engine frame is of the Corliss pattern; boiler of 
locomotive type, and extra strongly built. 

THE RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE. 

The most striking peculiarity is that the engine is 
mounted on the boiler differently from most side crank 
traction engines, the cylinder being forward and the 
shaft at the rear. This brings the gearing nearer the 
traction wheels and reduces its weight and complication. 




THE RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE. 



The boiler is of the round bottom firebox type, with 
dome in front and an ash pan in lower part of firebox, 
and is unusually well built and firmly riveted. 

The traction wheels are usually high, and the flywheel 
is between one wheel and the boiler. 

The engine frame is of the girder pattern, with over- 
hanging cylinder attached to one end. 

The boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type, fitted 
for straw, wood, or coal. Beam axle of the engine is be- 



DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 2^^ 

hind the firebox, and is a single soUd steel shaft. Front 
axle is elliptical, and so stronger than any other type. 

x\ double cylinder engine is now being built as well as 
the single cylinder. The governor regulates the double 
cylinder engine more closely than single cylinder types, 
and in the Rumely is very close to the cut-off where a 
special simple reverse is used with the double cylinder 
engine. 

Engine is supplied with cross-head pump and injector, 
Arnold shifting eccentric reverse gear, friction clutch, and 
large cylindrical water tank on the side. It also has the 
usual engine and boiler fittings. 

PORT HURON TRACTION ENGINE. 

The Port Huron traction engine is of the direct flue 
locomotive type, built either simple or compound, and of 
medium weight and excellent proportions for general 
purpose use. The compound engine (tandem Woolf 
cylinders) is especially recommended and pushed as 
more economical than the simple cylinder engine. As 
live steam can be admitted to the low pressure cylinder, 
so turning the compound into a simple cylinder engine 
with two cylinders, enormous power can be obtained at 
a moment's notice to help out at a difficult point. 

Two injectors are furnished with this engine, and the 
use of the injector is recommended, contrary to the gen- 
eral belief that a pump is more economical. The com- 
pany contends that the long exhaust pipe causes more 
back pressure on the cylinder than would be represented 
by the saving of heat in the heater. However, a cress- 
head pump and special condensing heater will be fur- 
nished if desired. 

On the simple engine a piston valve is used, the seat 
of the valve completely surrounding it and the ports 
being- circular openings, the result, it is claimed, being 
a balanced valve. 

The valve reverse gear is of the Woolf pattern, the 
engine frame of the girder type, Waters governor, with 
special patent speed changer, specially balanced crank 
disc, patent straw burner arrangement for straw burn- 



YOUNG ENGINEERS^ GUIDE, 

Special patent spark extinguisher, special 
patent gear lock, and special patents on front axle, drive 
wheel and loco cab. 

The usual fittings are supplied. 




DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENGINES. 






MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE. 

The Minneapolis traction engine is built both simple 




and compound. All sizes and styles have the return 
flue boiler, for wood, coal or straw. Both axles extenc^ 
entirely and straight under the boiler, giving complete 



240 



YOUNG ENGINEERS GUIDE. 



support without strain. The cyhnder, steam chest and 
guides form one piece, and are mounted above a heater, 
secured firmly to the boiler; valve single simple D pat- 
tern. Special throttle of the butterfly pattern, large crank 
pin turned by special device after it is driven in^ so in- 
suring perfect adjustment; special patent exhaust noz- 
zle made adjustable and so as always to throw steam in 
center of stack; friction clutch with three adjustable 
sTioes. Boiler is supplied with a superheater pipe. Woolf 
valve and reverse gear. Special heavy brass boxes and 
stuffing-boxes. Sight feed lubricator and needle feed 
oiler; Gardner spring governor. Complete with usual 
fittings. This is a simply constructed but very well made 
engine. 



INDEX 



A 

PAGE 

Ash pit 70 

Attachments for traction en- 
gine 52 

Automatic cut-off engines. .. 137 

B 

Babbitt Boxes, how to 217 

Blast devices 30 

Blow-off devices 30 

Boiler and engine, test ques- 
tions 52 

Boiler, attachments : 20 

Boiler, heating surface of ..132 

Boiler, how to manage 56 

Boiler, locomotive 13 

Boiler, questions and answers 95 

Boiler, return flue 15 

Boiler, starting a 57 

Boiler, vertical 17 

Boiler, water for 62 

Boilers 11 

Boilers, how to fill with water 24 
Boilers, terms connected with 17 

Boss 43 

Box, a hot 87 

Boxes, how to babbitt 217 

Bridges, how to cross safely. 93 
Buying an engine 7 

C 

Carbureters or mixers ..165-169 
Centering the crank ....180-181 

Clearance 35 

Clearance and lead 134 

Compound and cross com- 
pound engines 141 

Compound engines 124 

Compression in gas engines. . 

169-171, 184 

Condensation and expansion. 134 
Condenser . , 35 



PAGE 

Condensing engines* 140 

Connecting rod 34 

Corliss engines 138 

Crank 34, 41, 42 

Cross-head 33 

Cushion 35 

Cycle — meaning of explained 158 

Cylinder cocks 50 

Cylinders cocks, how to use. 83 

Cylinder head 33 

Cylinder lubricators 45 

D 

Differential gear 46 

Double eccentric, how to set 
valve 82 

E 

Eccentric 36 

Eccentric rod 36 

Eccentric, slipping of 83 

Economy in running farm en- 
gine 116, 130 

Engine and boiler, test ques- 
tions 52 

Engine, compound 124 

Engines, different types of.. 137 
Engine, how to manage .... 77 

Engine, simple 32 

Exhaust chamber 35 

Exhaust, the 135 

Exhaust nozzle 35 

Expansion and condensation. 134 
Expansive power of steam, 
how to use 122 

F 

Farm engine, economy in run- 
ning 116, 13c 

Fire, starting 70 

Firing, economical d'j 



241 



242 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Firing with coal 68 

Firing with straw 69 

Firing wuth wood 69 

Fly-wheel 44 

Four cycle gas engine . . .158-163 

Friction 126 

Friction clutch 47, 88 

Fuel and grate surface 130 

Fuels for gas engines ..164-165 
Fusible plug 48, 72 

G 

Gas and gasoline engines 143, 158 
Principles of explained 

158-160 

Testing condition of 181-183 
Gas engines compared with 

steam 144 

Gasoline engines, description 

of 146 

Gasoline engines, how to 

operate 150 

Gasoline engines, what to do 

when thev don't work ... .153 

Gauee, steam 22 

Gauge, water 20 

Governors 40 

Grain, weight per bushel ..220 
Grate surface 130 

H 

Heater d'j 

Heating surface of a boiler.. 132 

High speed engines 139 

Hills, how^ to pass with en- 
gine 94 

Hole, how to get out of 92 

Hot box, a 87 

How energy is lost 119 

How heat is distributed ....120 

I 

Ignition apparatus for gas en- 
gines 171-177 

Electric 172-177 

Hot tube 171 

Jump spark system. . 173-177 



PAGE 
Make and break system 

; 172-173, 176 

Spark coil 173 

Timing 178-179 

Indicator, steam 50 

Injectors 28-66 

J 

Journals 41, 44 

K 

Key, gib, and strap 42 

Knock, what makes an en- 
gine 79 

L 

Lap of a valve 35 

Lead 35, 80 

Lead and clearance 134 

Leaks 136 

Leaky flues 73 

License, questions asked ap- 
plicants for 201 

Link gear 37 

Lubrication 85 

Lubricators 44 

M 

Meyer valve gear 40 

N 

Non-condensing engines .... 140 

P 

Pillow blocks 44 

Piston , 33 

Ports 34 

Practical points of economy. 130 

Pulleys, how to key .217 

Pumps, boiler 25, 63 

Q 

Questions and answers 

201, 95, 104 



III 



INDEX. 



^43 



PAGE 
Questions and answers, the 

boiler 95 

Questions and answers, the 

engine • • .104 

Questions, test, on engine 

and boiler 52 

R 

Reversing gear 37 

Road, how to handle trac- 
tion engine on the 91 

S 

Safety valves 23 

Sand patches, how to get over 

with engine 93 

Setting a valve 35, 81 

Shaft 41 

Smoke 71 

Spark arresters 31 

Sparks 72 

Stationary engines 137 

Steam-chest ^. . . 34 

Steam cylinder 33 

Steam, how to use expansive 

powder of 122 

Steam, properties of 121 

Steam valve 34 

Stuffing box 35, 50 

T 

Testing a gas engine .... 181-182 
Threshing machines, how to 

run 186 

Attachments 195 

Balancing a cylinder ...198 

Belting 195 

Goncaves 190 

Conveyor extension 192 



PAGE 

Covering pulleys 199 

Cylinder ,189 

Fan 191 

How to feed 197 

Self-feeder 193 

Separator, how to set . . .188 

Separator, care of 199 

Sieves 192 

Straw rack 191 

Tailings elevator 193 

Waste 197 

Wind stacker 194 

Theory of steam power 116 

Throttling engines ........ .137 

Throttle 34 

Throw of an eccentric 36 

Traction engines, different 

makes 221 

Traction engine, how to 

handle on the road 91 

Traction engine, how to 

manage 77 

Two cycle gas engine. .. 160-164 

V 

Valve gear 36 

Valve, how to set simple .... 81 

Valve seat 34 

Valve, setting 35 

Valve stem 35 

Valve, steam 34 

W 

Whistle signals, code of . . . .219 
Woolf reversing gear 39 

Y 

Young engineers, points for 
95, 104, 110 



Twentieth Century 
Machine Shop Practice 

By L. ELLIOTT BROOKES 

The best and latest and most 
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THIS NEW EDITION contains in addition four complete diaptfifi OA 
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^he 20th Century Hand Book 

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Formerly Chief Engineer of the Pullman Car Works. Late Chief Engineer 
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ELECTRICAL DIVISION 

The electrical part of this valuable volume was written by a practical 
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Complete Examination 
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FOR Marine and 
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^ 



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Modern Locomotive Engineering Handy Book, and 
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STEAM BOILERS, THEIR 
CONSTRUCTION, CARE 
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with questions 
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By C. F. swingle, M. E. 



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The latest and most 
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A WORK of practical information for the use of Owners, Operators and 
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REVISED AND ENLARGED 

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The Practical Gas €? 
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MODERN ELECTRICAL 
Ngv«N« CONSTRUCTION 



By HORSTMANN and TOUSLEY 



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Easy Electrical Experiments 
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OPERATORS' WIRELESS TELEGRAPH 
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UP-TO-DATE and most com- 
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Modern Carpentry 

A PILACTICAL MANUAL 



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STEEL SQUARE 

A TREATiSE OF THE PRAGTIGAL USES OF 

By FRED. T. HODGSON, Architect 



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